INDEX

    Abercrombie, Robert, 243

    “Act for the Prevention of Vice and Immorality,” 316

    Adams, Abigail, 178

    Adams, Charles Francis, 122

    Adams, John: on government, 172, 173; and James Warren, 76, 170, 309; and Jefferson, 182; on “Merchantile Interest,” 58; as president, 159; and Royall Tyler, 301; on Shays’s Rebellion, 182

    Adams, John Quincy, 134

    Adams, Samuel, 20, 124, 141, 169, 170

    Adams (family), 138, 301

    Adams, Mass., 129, 232, 277

    Address to the Inhabitants of New England concerning the Present Bloody Controversy Therein, 270–73

    “Address to the People,” 59, 135, 137, 265

    Advertising, 103, 107–8, 109

    Agriculture, 61, 192–93, 207

    Ahlstrom, Sydney, 240

    Albany, N.Y., 262

    Albion, Maine, 152–53

    Alden, Noah, 258

    Alexander, Elijah, 88

    Alexander v. Taft, 91

    Alford, Mass., 232, 263, 267, 277

    Allen, Thomas, 258, 277

    American Antiquarian Society, 122

    American Museum, 309

    Ames, Fisher, 169, 181

    Amherst, Mass.: Am. Rev. in, 209; clergy in, 209; Friends of Government in, 202, 233; Loyalists in, 209; political culture of, 199; religion in, 233, 251–52; Shaysites in, 129, 130, 233

    Amherst College, 6

    Ammidowns (militia officer), 206

    Anarchiad, The, 177–78, 297

    Anarchy: conservative republicans / Friends of Government on, 12, 143, 152, 171–72, 177, 179; Federalists on, 179; radical republicans on, 170, 174; and republicanism, 316

    Andover, Mass., 265

    Andrews, Thomas, 95–96

    Androscoggin River, 284

    Anglicans, 188

    Annan, David, 260

    Annapolis, Md., 114, 179

    Antifederalism, 19, 152, 206, 240

    Antifederalists: on Confederation, 175, 180, 292, 293; on Congress, 292; on Daniel Shays, 180, 181–82; on elections, 292–93; and Federalists, 291, 292, 294, 295; Friends of Government as, 4; Henry Knox on, 102; and Jefferson, 180; in Maine, 281–83, 291–94; in Mass., 102, 176, 179, 294; in N.Y., 176; on paper money, 291; radical republicans as, 175; on rebellion (concept), 180–81; and republicanism, 282–83; and Shays’s Rebellion, 175–76, 180–82; on slavery, 293; on state debt, 291; and U.S. Constitution, 176, 180–81, 292, 293

    Apocalypticism, 271

    “Appeal to the People,” 289

    Aristocracy, 142, 166, 172

    Aristocrats, 113, 168. See also Elites

    Arminianism, 254–55

    Arminians, 265, 271–72

    Army, Continental: Bostonians in, 133; chaplains in, 307; Daniel Shays in, 1, 2–3, 309; Friends of Government in, 13; mentioned, 132; officers of, 48–49, 103; clothing of, 128–29; Payments for, 48–49, 72, 103; provisions for, 102, 133; and religion, 209, 210; soldiers of, 72, 95, 103

    Army, standing, 292

    Arsenal, federal. See Shays’s Rebellion: in Springfield, Mass.

    Articles of Confederation, 4, 8, 48, 54, 113–14, 175

    Artisans: in backcountry, 190; and banks, 65; in Boston, 110–11, 281; as clergy, 256; and culture, 316; and debt, 86, 145; employment of, 103; and Federalism, 113, 114; interests of, 58, 70; as Jeffersonians, 361 n. 25; and merchants, 113; and paper money, 61; as Shaysites, 145; and taxes, 145; and U.S. Constitution, 281; in Worcester Co., Mass., 94

    Ashburnham, Mass., 234

    Ashfield, Mass., 233, 259, 276

    Atholl, Mass., 234

    Augusta, Maine, 153, 154, 156

    Austin, Benjamin, 97–98

    Avery, Joseph, 267, 277

    Ayres, Oliver, 277

    Babbitt, Christopher, 272–73

    Backcountry: advertising in, 103, 107–8; agriculture in, 14, 192–93; and Am. Rev., 13–14, 20, 22, 102, 134–35, 203; artisans in, 102–3, 190; bankers in, 65; Baptists in, 17, 210–11, 262, 272, 305; British factors in, 106; change in, 16, 18, 22, 102; class in, 16, 136, 150, 189, 199; clergy in, 200, 249, 250; community in, 16, 18, 186; Congregationalism in, 17, 210–11, 241, 272, 312; of Conn., 190–91; consumers in, 107; county conventions in, 104, 135, 200; courts in, 74, 135, 199, 200–202; culture of, 7, 19–20, 103, 299, 316; debt in, 74, 104, 134–36, 193–94, 306; and eastern Mass., 12; economy of, 6, 16, 22, 134–35, 189, 199, 295; factions in, 16, 17; farmers in, 22, 123, 134, 188, 190; in literature, 19–20; Loyalists in, 199; and magistrates, 12; of Maine, 14–16, 153–60; of Mass., 187–88; and Mass, constitutions, 135–36; and Mass, government, 13, 14, 22, 71, 103, 199–200; and merchants, 9, 12, 107, 190, 217; money in, 9, 11, 109; of N.C., 188; newspapers in, 103, 107; occupations in, 102–3; of Pa., 188; political culture of, 12–16, 135, 136, 199–200, 203, 306; politics in, 7, 103, 189; and prices, 13, 70; Protestantism in, 206, 255; scholarship on, 135, 136; sects in, 16, 17–18, 210–11, 241, 305; Separates in, 17, 305; settlement of, 18, 187–88, 305; Shakers in, 17, 18, 210–11, 262, 272, 305; and Shays’s Rebellion, 12–13, 20, 282; society in, 6, 13–14, 15, 16, 186, 189; specie in, 134, 136; stereotypes of, 299, 305; taxes in, 14, 74, 135, 136; towns in, 17, 20, 103, 104, 187–88, 199; trade with, 75, 106, 190; Universalists in, 17, 210–11, 262, 272, 305; and U.S. Constitution, 282; of Va., 188; wealth in, 13, 134, 190. See also specific places

    Backus, Isaac, 257, 258, 270–73

    Bailey, Isaac, 276

    Baldwin, Moses, 244

    Ballantine, John, 306

    Ballard, Ephraim, 154

    Balltown, Maine, 154

    Bancroft, George, 161

    Banditti. See Shaysites

    Bangs, Edward, 82, 93–94

    Bankers, 65

    Bankruptcy, 10, 84

    Banks, 60–66, 80, 333 n. 8

    Baptist Association, Shaftesbury, 259, 260

    Baptist Association, Warren, 209, 213, 257, 258–59, 260

    Baptists: in Bristol Co., Mass., 275; in Conn., 262; as Friends of Government, 221–22, 223, 226; in Hampshire Co., Mass., 263, 276–77; as Jeffersonians, 361 n. 25; and Mass. Constitution of 1780, 222; in N.H., 311; and political theology, 270, 274; in Rehoboth, Mass., 263; and Separates, 259; and Shakers, 262; as Shaysites, 206, 221–22, 225, 226; in Shaysite towns, 17; and Shays’s Rebellion, 20, 274; as Universalists, 210; in Va., 188; in Worcester Co., Mass., 224, 225, 261, 275, 277

    Baptists, Calvinistic Particular, 256

    Baptists, Free Will, 210, 305

    Baptists, Particular, 259

    Baptists, Separate, 209, 213, 239–40, 246–48, 256–62, 270–73

    Baptists, Strict, 305

    Barnum, P. T., 314, 319

    Barre, Mass., 234, 275

    Barrell, Nathaniel, 294

    Bay Psalm Book, The, 253

    Beals, Isaac, 226

    Becket, Mass., 232

    Belcher, Jonathan, 63–65

    Belchertown, Mass., 131, 233

    Belknap, Jeremy, 149

    Bellingham, Mass., 258

    Bellows, Jon, 84

    Bemiss, Benjamin, 219

    Bemiss (family), 219

    Bender, George, 155

    Bennington, Battle of, 269

    Bennington, Vt., 302

    Berkshire Co., Mass.: Baptists in, 209, 257, 258, 263, 277; class in, 213; clergy in, 209, 211, 248, 250, 267, 277; Congregationalism in, 211, 248–49, 254, 277; and county conventions, 125, 127; Friends of Government in, 277; Jeffersonians in, 361 n. 25; and Mass, constitution of 1778, 199–200; sects in, 209, 211, 262; Shakers in, 262, 277; Shaysites in, 277; Shays’s Rebellion in, 174, 199, 287; and taxes, 329 n. 43; towns in, 213, 232, 277

    Berlin, Mass., 234

    Bernardston, Mass., 233

    Betterment Act, 159–60

    Bicknell, Thomas, 87

    Bid well, Adonijah, 277

    Bigelow, Daniel, 94

    Bigelow, Samuel, 258

    Billerica, Mass., 265

    Billings, John, 130

    Bill of rights (U.S. Constitution), 181, 292, 293

    Bills, loan office, 63, 64

    Birth of a Consumer Society, The, 107

    Bisco, John, 220

    Black Regiment, 205, 264

    Blackstone Valley, 225

    Blandford, Mass., 233

    Block, Ruth, 207

    Blodgett, Joseph, 276

    Board of Trade, 64, 65, 66

    Board of War, 73

    Bolton, Mass., 234

    Bonds, 67

    Boston, Mass., 271, 298; and Am. Rev., 13, 106, 133, 141, 210, 246; Antifederalists in, 176; artisans in, 110–11, 281; bankers in, 65; banks in, 61; British in, 52, 68; clergy in, 253, 259; Colonial Society of Mass, 111, 64; creditors in, 131, 215, 218; culture of, 14, 213, 255, 316; Daniel Shays on, 126; elections in, 114; elites in, 258, 313; ideology in, 133, 135; importers in, 108; laborers in, 62; leaders of, 61, 64; and Maine statehood, 286; Mass. legislature in, 103, 125–26, 241, 283, 286; merchants in, 69, 71, 75, 106, 110,124, 124, 131, 138; money in, 138, 301; newspapers in, 2, 3, 107, 309; population of, 133; prices in, 62, 70, 74, 75; protests in, 70; radical republicans in, 169–70; religion in, 241, 243, 253–54, 258, 260–61, 265, 271; representation of, 114; and Shays’s Rebellion, 115, 124, 138; as state capital, 1, 21, 73, 156, 213, 266–67; stores in, 96, 107; town meetings in, 71, 75; tradesmen in, 110–11; trade with,74, 75, 192; and U.S. Constitution, 281, 282, 291–92; wholesalers in, 11

    Boston Commercial Gazette, 2–3

    Boston Gazette, 110

    Boston Magazine, 141

    Bowdoin, James: administration of, 137; Benjamin Lincoln and, 140–41; and elections of 1787, 139; and Friends of Government, 21; on Maine statehood, 285–86; merchants and, 110–11; petitions to, 138; proclamation of, 128; salary of, 117; and Shaysites, 124, 126, 127, 140–41; and Shays’s Rebellion, 115, 266

    Bowdoin, James, Sr., 64

    Bowman, William, 95

    Boylston, Mass., 234

    Braintree, Mass., 138, 301

    Breck, Robert, 255

    Bridge, Edmund, 156, 157

    Brimfield, Mass., 233

    Bristol Co., Mass.: clergy in, 250; conventions in, 127; and Gov. Bowdoin, 138; petitions from, 68; religion in, 257, 263, 275

    Bristol, Maine, 154

    British, 68, 105–6, 116, 117, 118, 151

    Broad, Aaron, 128, 205

    Broad, Wilder, 153

    Bromfield, Edward, Jr., 64

    Brooke, John L., 16–18, 239–41, 248–51, 361 n. 25

    Brookfield, Mass., 213; creditors in, 218, 220, 221, 223; Daniel Shays in, 194; debtors in, 218; economy of, 194–95; elites in, 17, 217–18, 220, 221; Friends of Government in, 17, 132, 194–95, 214, 234; religion in, 214, 218, 221, 223, 234; Rev. veterans in, 194; Shaysites in, 214, 234

    Brooks, John, 133

    Brown, Richard, 161

    Brunswick, Maine, 283, 284

    Buckland, Mass., 233

    Bullard, John, 275

    Bullard, Jonathan, 220

    Bullion, 49, 327 n. 16. See also Currency; Money; Money, paper; Specie; specific types of money

    Bunker Hill, Battle of, 130

    Bunyan, John, 299

    Burgoyne, John, 130

    Burns, James MacGregor, 161

    Burroughs, Eden, 243, 244, 300, 304, 311, 312

    Burroughs, Mrs. Eden, 300

    Burroughs, Stephen, 303, 308; capture of, 244, 313–14; as “clergyman,” 19, 212, 243–44, 299–300, 304–5, 312–13; as counterfeiter, 19, 302, 315; education of, 19, 300, 311; family of, 243, 244, 300, 304, 311; flight of, 244, 300; imprisonment of, 19, 300, 314–15; life of, 311–12; memoirs of, 301, 312–13, 315; on Pelham, Mass., 196, 212, 313–14; on Shays’s Rebellion, 314; trial of, 300, 315; wealth of, 300, 313

    Bushman, Richard L., 136, 325 n. 9

    Butler, Ephraim, 95

    Cabot, Thomas, 138

    Calvinism, 243, 259, 264, 271, 307, 312

    Calvinists, 254, 255, 258, 265

    Cambridge, Mass., 115, 215, 218

    Cambridge Platform, 208

    Campbell, Archibald, 275

    Cape Breton campaign, 66

    Capitalism, 4, 6, 16, 17, 22. See also Economy

    Carp, E. Wayne, 133

    Certificate, Continental, 107, 109

    Certificates of indebtedness, 67

    Certificates, treasury, 71

    Chaddock, Joseph, 219–20

    Chadwick, Paul, 160

    Chapin, Daniel, 275

    Charles I, king of Eng., 70

    Charlmont, Mass., 233

    Charlton, Mass., 213; Am. Rev. in, 209; clergy in, 209; creditors in, 214; debtors in, 214; Friends of Government in, 205–6, 214, 221, 224, 234; religion in, 221, 222, 234, 311; Shaysites in, 205–6, 214, 224, 234

    Charter of 1692 (Mass.), 135, 222

    Chauncy, Charles, 254

    Chenery, Isaac, 137, 205, 227

    Cheshire, Mass., 257

    Chester, Mass., 233

    Chesterfield, Mass., 233

    Chileab, Mass., 258

    Chilmark, Mass., 252

    China, 112

    Choate, Isaac, 226

    Cilly, Joseph, 148

    Cities, 109, 261, 316. See also Seaports; Towns

    Clarke (family), 288. See also Great Proprietors

    Clarks (family), 189

    Clary, Elisha, 95

    Class: in backcountry, 150, 189; in Berkshire Co., Mass., 213; challenges to, 20; clergy and, 212; courts and, 10, 11; and debt, 81–82; Federalists and, 218; Friends of Government and, 217–21, 223; in Hampshire Co., Mass., 212, 213; and ideology, 59; Minot on, 104–5; and religion, 213–21; and republicanism, 15; Shaysites and, 217–21, 223; and Shays’s Rebellion, 15, 20, 79–81, 117, 123, 212–16; and theater, 316; in Worcester Co., Mass., 213, 217–21

    Clemons, Jonathan, 220

    Clergy: in Amherst, Mass., 209; and Am. Rev., 205–6, 249–50, 252–53, 261, 305, 307; artisans as, 256; in backcountry, 200, 249, 250; and banks, 65; in Berkshire Co., Mass., 211, 248, 250, 267, 277; in Boston, 253, 258, 259; in Bristol Co., Mass., 250, 275; in Charlton, Mass., 209; in Chilmark, Mass., 252; and class, 18, 207, 212, 258, 310; in Concord, Mass., 255, 307; of Congregationalists, 260, 267; and congregations, 209, 306–7; in Conn., 267–69, 311–12; on culture, 316; in Deerfield, Mass., 209; and deference, 228, 306; employment of, 242, 248, 273, 305, 306; farmers as, 256, 258; as Friends of Government, 263, 266, 267, 277; in Great Britain, 261; in Greenfield, Mass., 209; in Hampshire Co., Mass., 211, 250, 305, 306; in Hatfield, Mass., 266; on human nature, 292; ideology of, 274; imposters as, 308; as local leaders, 249, 263–64; Loyalists as, 209, 252–53, 263, 275, 276, 277; in Maine, 269, 284; and Mass, government, 205, 258, 298; in Medford, Mass., 307; in Middlesex Co., Mass., 250, 252; in Middleton, Mass., 252; in N.H., 149, 260–61, 300, 311; in Northampton, Mass., 196, 267; in Northfield, Mass., 209; in Pelham, Mass., 212, 242–44, 245, 300, 304–5; and plagiarism, 307–8; and politics, 263–64; and popular protest, 269; in Princeton, Mass., 252; and property, 242, 249; on protesters, 169; on religious decline, 208, 240; role of, 207–8; salaries of, 207–8, 226, 242–43, 251, 256, 259–60, 275–77, 304–5; as Shaysites, 267–69; and Shays’s Rebellion, 205–7, 210, 220, 224, 227, 264–65, 270; in Shutesbury, Mass., 209, 252; in South Hadley, Mass., 308; in Springfield, Mass., 255; in Sunderland, Mass., 306; and U.S. Constitution, 258; in Vt., 269; in Ware, Mass., 267; in Warwick, Mass., 209; in Westfield, Mass., 306; in West Springfield, Mass., 308; in Worcester Co., Mass., 209, 211, 248, 250, 252, 255, 275

    Clinton, DeWitt, 174

    Clinton Historical Society, 101

    Cochrane, James, 148–49

    Cogswell, Benjamin, 87, 88, 90, 91

    Colman, John, 62, 65

    Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 6

    Colrain, Mass., 233, 260, 276

    Commerce, 61, 69, 70, 169

    Committees of correspondence, 70, 196, 246

    Committees of safety, 283

    Communitarianism, 124

    Community: and agriculture, 207; and Am. Rev., 186, 187; in backcountry, 186; concept of, 16; Daniel Shays and, 185; and debt relationships, 83–84; in eastern Mass., 186; Friends of Government and, 223; leaders of, 65, 208; in New England, 186, 193; and political behavior, 195; political culture of, 203, 207; and political theory, 141; and religion, 207–8; scholarship on, 190–91, 193, 203; Shaysites and, 185, 217, 219–21; and Shays’s Rebellion, 186–87, 207, 208, 212, 228, 248–49

    Commutation, 48

    Concord, Battle of, 10, 21, 81, 130, 252

    Concord, Mass.: clergy in, 255, 307; courts in, 298; on Daniel Shays, 2; prices in, 75–76; religion in, 255, 307; Shaysites in, 128; and Shays’s Rebellion, 20–21, 138

    Concord, N.H., 109

    Concord Gazette and Middlesex Yeoman, 3

    Confederation: Antifederalists on, 175, 180, 292, 293; capital of, 117; conservative republicans oh, 175; Federalists and, 101, 181; finances of, 47, 48; frontier of, 303; members of, 54; radical republicans on, 175; reform of, 180, 292, 293; scholarship on, 143; and trade regulation, 111; and U.S. Constitution, 181

    Congregationalism: challenges to, 18, 240–41, 245, 248–56, 260, 273; change in, 273; decline of, 240–41; and Shays’s Rebellion, 207–10, 212, 226–27, 248–49, 250

    Congregationalists: in backcountry, 272; and Baptists, 258; before Am. Rev., 242; clergy of, 259, 260, 269, 270, 305–6, 308; decline of, 264; divisions among, 226–27, 258; and finance, 263; in folklore, 189; as Friends of Government, 267; in Hampshire Co., Mass., 188, 227, 308; institutions of, 242, 264; in Maine, 284; and New Light Stir, 257; and political theology, 263–74; and Presbyterians, 187; and Scots-Irish, 187; and sects, 305–6; and Shaysites, 149, 207, 239; in Shay site towns, 17; wealth of, 259; in Worcester Co., Mass., 187, 220–24, 226–27, 245, 247

    Congregationalists, Reorganized, 275

    Congregationalists, Separate, 260

    Congress, Continental, 68

    Congress, U.S.: and Am. Rev., 47–48, 74; Antifederalists on, 292; and army, 48–49; and currency reform, 74; and economy, 112; Federalists and, 113, 116–17; and Mass., 49–50, 51–52, 53; and Mass. General Court, 74; members of, 111, 291, 294; merchants and, 110; and militias, 303; and monetary policy, 47–50, 52–53, 72, 77, 101; and price controls, 74, 76; requisitions of, 8, 49, 51–55, 73, 327 n. 14, 331 n. 52; and revenue, 111, 113; and sectionalism, 112; and trade, 110, 113, 116; and U.S. bill of rights, 292

    Congresses, provincial (Mass.), 68, 127, 283

    Conkey, William, Jr., 198, 244

    Conkey (family), 244, 245

    Connecticut: backcountry of, 190–91; and border disputes, 267; clergy in, 267–69, 311–12; conservative republicans in, 172; economy of, 193; farms in, 191, 192; and fiscal policy, 69, 71, 76; reformation men in, 225; religion in, 262, 267–68, 311–12; scholarship on, 190–91; Shays’s Rebellion in, 190; towns in, 190–91; and U.S. Constitution, 6; wealth in, 190–91

    Connecticut Valley, 187; agriculture in, 190, 192; elites in, 195, 310; Loyalists in, 195; religion in, 261, 308; towns in, 14

    Consensus, 141, 164

    Conservatives: on county conventions, 104; and farmers, 103, 104; lawyers as, 114; and Mass, government, 103, 104; merchants as, 105, 114; and paper money, 115; and property, 104, 127; and radical republicans, 162; and Shaysites, 123, 127; and Shay’s Rebellion, 18–19, 101, 115; as traders, 105. See also Republicans

    Conspiracy, 21, 303

    Constitution, U.S.: Antifederalists and, 162, 175, 176, 180–81; artisans and, 281; Bicentennial of, 6; clergy and, 258; debate over, 5; and elections, 292–93; Federalists and, 179–80; framers of, 4, 19, 162, 176, 179, 292; Hamilton and, 6; Henry Knox on, 290; Jay and, 6; Madison and, 6, 142–43; and Maine, 290–91, 296; Mass, and, 5, 169; merchants and, 281; Minot on, 181; N.Y. and, 6; ratification of, 152, 176, 179–81, 252, 281–83, 290–96; and religion, 258; and republicanism, 282; scholarship on, 4, 6, 7, 124, 161–62; and Shays’s Rebellion, 3–5, 7, 102, 105, 143, 161–62; and slavery, 252, 293; supporters of, 162, 176, 180; as symbol, 182; and U.S. bill of rights, 181, 282, 292, 293

    Constitution of 1778 (Mass.), 135–36, 199–200, 222

    Constitution of 1780 (Mass.): “Attleborough” on, 167; backcountry and, 13, 135–36, 200; Benjamin Lincoln and, 141; clergy and, 258, 298; conservatives on, 104; and county conventions, 104, 127; and courts, 136; and creditors, 55, 105; and debtors, 105; Declaration of Rights of, 242, 247, 287; eastern Mass, and, 135, 136; framing of, 127; Friends of Government and, 223; and Mass. Senate, 136; Minot on, 105, 143; Pelham, Mass., and, 14; radical republicans on, 170; ratification of, 49, 54, 200; and religion, 217, 222, 241–42, 245, 247; and representation, 53; and restricted franchise, 136; Shaysites and, 125, 133, 135–36, 141; and Shays’s Rebellion, 102; supporters of, 241

    Consumer goods, 11, 22, 69, 308, 310

    Consumerism, 51, 310

    Consumers, 22, 103, 107, 109, 270

    Contrast, The (play), 19, 302, 316–19

    Convention, Annapolis, 114, 179

    Convention, constitutional (Mass., 1780), 127

    Convention, Constitutional (U.S., 1787), 4, 6, 56, 173, 175, 178–79, 185–86; Conn, and, 6; Henry Knox, 102; merchants and, 113; N.J. and, 6; and Shays’s Rebellion, 105, 161; Va. and, 6

    Conventions, county: in backcountry, 104, 135, 200; in Berkshire Co., Mass., 125–26; conservatives and, 104; Daniel Shays and, 198; debates in, 162; delegates to, 165; demands of, 125–26, 127; during Am. Rev., 75–76, 104; Federalists and, 114; and fiscal policy, 163; in Hampshire Co., 137; in Hampshire Co., Mass., 125–26, 244; in Maine, 284, 285, 286–92, 294, 295, 296; in Mass., 104, 127; opponents of, 163, 286–92; petitions of, 163, 165; and property, 104; response to, 163; Samuel Adams on, 169; Shaysites and, 125, 127, 219–20, 244; and Shays’s Rebellion, 2, 13, 114, 123, 127; significance of, 127; supporters of, 163, 286–87; in towns, 104; in Worcester Co., Mass., 94, 219–20, 311

    Conventions, state ratifying (U.S. Constitution): Maine and, 282, 291–94; in Mass., 130, 176, 179, 252, 281, 282; in N.H., 282; in N.Y., 174

    Conventions of 1782 (Mass.), 127

    Conventions of 1784 (Mass.), 127

    Conway, Mass., 194, 233, 276

    Corruption: and Am. Rev., 264; Congregationalists on, 264, 274; and national debt, 60; paper money opponents on, 271; paper money supporters on, 59, 63; rulers and, 166; Shaysites on, 5, 274

    Council (Mass.), 61, 68, 71, 157

    Counterfeiting, 19, 73, 74, 300, 302, 315

    Counterprotest, 163

    Counterrevolution, 173–74, 270

    Court of Common Pleas: in Berkshire, Mass., 130; debt cases in, 10, 87–91, 94, 221; opponents of, 97–98, 125; Shaysites and, 213, 227; in Worcester Co., Mass., 10, 87–91, 94, 213, 227

    Court of General Sessions, 125, 227

    “Court Party,” 59, 73, 165

    Courts: Adam Wheeler on, 227–28; and Am. Rev., 199, 201; appeals in, 93, 114; in backcountry, 74, 135, 199, 200–202; and class, 10, 11; closings of, 55, 81, 123, 135, 139, 145, 151, 163, 199–202, 205–6, 213, 217, 224–25, 227, 285, 297–98; in Concord, Mass., 21, 298; and Constitution of 1780 (Mass.), 136; costs in, 11, 81, 87, 90–91, 94, 97–98; creditors and, 10–11, 83–85, 94–99, 137, 201; debtors and, 10, 82–99, 108–9, 113–14, 137; efficiency of, 10, 11; farmers and, 102, 117; Federalists and, 103, 114, 117; in Hampshire Co., Mass., 200, 201–2; lawyers and, 201; in Maine, 157, 283, 296; merchants and, 10–11; in N.H., 149, 163; in Northampton, Mass., 104, 267, 285, 297; reform of, 11, 97–98, 99, 114, 127; Samuel Thompson on, 295; scholarship on, 10, 81, 93, 97; in Shirley, Mass., 298; structure of, 82; in Worcester Co., Mass., 81–82, 205–6, 224, 227, 285

    Covenant political theology. See Political theology

    Coventry, Conn., 311–12

    Cowden, Capt., 198

    Cozier, Matthias, 245

    Crafts, Thomas, 276

    Credit: in 1780s, 11; and Articles of Confederation, 54; Commonwealth of Mass, and, 49, 50; and consumer purchases, 108; during Am. Rev., 51, 54, 58, 68; federal government and, 56; in Great Britain, 54; and ideology, 58–59; merchants and, 11, 58, 71, 131; Province of Mass, and, 9, 58, 67; and republican government, 55, 56; and specie, 82; and taxes, 69, 72

    Credit, bills of, 47, 67, 70, 72

    Credit, foreign, 52, 54, 106, 109

    Creditors: and Am. Rev., 47, 48; in Boston, 131, 215, 218; in Cambridge, Mass., 215; and class, 218, 219–221; Daniel Shays as, 129; and debt litigation, 10–11, 81–99, 131, 137, 213, 219; as debtors, 11, 87, 105, 131; diversity of, 47; and economy, 83, 92; and federal debt, 52–53; as Federalists, 104, 114; as Friends of Government, 218–21; interests of, 47, 54; and Mass. state debt, 48, 50, 52–53; Minot on, 105; and monetary policy, 50, 53, 66, 76, 78, 104; number of, 51; occupations of, 10–11, 82, 87, 90; petitioners and, 166; in Plymouth, Mass., 215; and property, 105; in Province of Mass., 67; and religion, 226; and republican government, 55, 59; in R.I., 215; as Shaysites, 16–17, 219–20; and taxes, 54, 55; wealth of, 10, 81, 83; in Worcester Co., Mass., 85–99, 218–21

    Creditors, foreign, 52, 58, 60, 65–66, 147

    Critical Period. See Confederation

    Cromwell, Oliver, 152

    Cronin, Thomas E., 161

    Crozier, Matthias, 277

    Culture: and Am. Rev., 255; of backcountry, 103, 299; of Boston, 255; change in, 103; elites and, 22, 188; and ethnicity, 245; of farmers, 103, 188; and religion, 241, 258; and Shays’s Rebellion, 103, 298; and social structure, 19; spread of, 316; and theater, 318; in towns, 299

    Culture, folk, 154

    Culture, political. See Political culture

    Cumberland Co., Maine, 283, 284, 288

    Cumberland Gazette, 284, 286–87, 290

    Cumings, Henry, 265

    Cummington, Mass., 233

    Cunningham, John, Jr., 109

    Currency, 57–59, 61, 63, 66, 68–69, 72

    Currency Act of 1751, 66

    Currency finance, 58, 60, 68–92, 334 n. 12

    Curtis, Caleb, 205–6, 207, 209, 224

    Cushing, Thomas, Jr., 64, 69, 71

    Cushing, William, 81, 82

    Cutler, Robert, 276

    Dalton, Tristan, 69

    Dalton, Mass., 232, 277

    Dana, Josiah, 275

    Dana, Samuel, 252, 275

    Dane, Nathan, 111, 113

    Danforth, Asa, 86

    Dartmouth College, 19, 260–61, 300, 304, 315

    Davis. See Burroughs, Stephen

    Davis, Ebenezer, 311

    Day, Elijah, 209

    Day, Luke, 129, 166, 209, 308

    Deacons, 207–8, 218–24, 226–27, 240

    Debt: in 1780s, 47; Antifederalists on, 291; arbitration of, 220; artisans and, 86, 145; in backcountry, 74, 136, 193–94; British and, 106; certificates for, 79; and class, 81–82; and community, 83–84; concentration of, 51; consolidation of, 49, 50, 52, 78; Continental officers and, 132; courts and, 81–82; and currency, 66; depreciation of, 51, 78; and economy, 83, 101; elites and, 73; farmers and, 11, 117, 145, 194, 297; federal government and, 8, 48, 50, 52, 115; Federalists on, 115, 117; Friends of Government and, 132; in Great Britain, 60; and ideology, 59; imprisonment for, 126; of individuals, 51; laborers and, 11; laws on, 194; and luxury, 134, 137; in Maine, 296; Mass, government and, 22, 59, 60, 67, 73, 137; merchants and, 71; payment of, 60, 65–66, 77–78, 125, 137, 194, 217, 267, 344 n. 6; protests against, 19; public opinion on, 11; relief from, 22; scholarship on, 78, 81, 193–94; Shaysites and, 123, 145, 224; and Shays’s Rebellion, 7, 22, 55, 78; and society, 82, 225; and specie, 60, 86; speculation in, 50–51; and taxes, 60, 78, 125, 217; towns and, 72–73; women and, 86

    Debtors, 1; aid for, 220, 225; in backcountry, 104, 217; bankruptcy of, 84; and banks, 62; Baptists and, 226; character of, 82; and class, 228; and Commonwealth of Mass., 105; and Mass. Constitution of 1780, 105; and courts, 10, 81–99, 108–9, 113–14, 137; and creditors, 10, 105, 131, 166; creditors as, 11, 87, 105, 131; default by, 10; and economy, 82; financial support of, 85; as Friends of Government, 17, 218–21; and lawyers, 93, 113, 137; legal appeals by, 91–92, 95, 114; merchants and, 10; Minot on, 105; and monetary policy, 76; in N.H., 149; occupations of, 11, 87, 89; as petitioners, 166; punishment of, 84–87, 93, 194, 217, 297; and republican government, 55; scholarship on, 97, 98–99; in seaports, 217; as Shaysites, 16–17, 108–9, 131, 194, 219–21, 223; state legislatures and, 124; in Worcester Co., Mass., 85–99, 217, 218–21

    Deerfield, Mass., 209, 233

    Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States, 172

    Deference: in backcountry, 189, 306; collapse of, 223, 224; creditors and, 228; Daniel Shays and, 309; debtors and, 228; elites and, 228, 310, 319; Federalists and, 158, 159; in Maine, 159

    Deflation, 81, 82, 83, 99. See also Economy

    Deism, 263

    Deists, 277

    Democracy, 142, 172, 173

    Dennis, Samuel, 246, 247

    Denny, Samuel, 226

    Denny (family), 226

    Depreciation: Congress and, 74; of debts, 51, 78; ideology and, 69; and military recruitment, 338 n. 30; of paper money, 49, 60, 68, 74, 76–77, 126; and price controls, 76–77; in R.I., 64; of treasury notes, 79

    Depression, economic: courts and, 10; creditors and, 82, 83, 99; and debt, 81; and debt cases, 81; elites and, 11; Mass, government and, 3, 7; and public loans, 64; response to, 17, 21. See also Economy

    Despotism, 12

    Development, economic, 57–58, 64. See also Economy

    Dickinson, Reuben, 129

    Dictatorship, 173

    Dillingham, Pitt, 153, 155, 156

    Discourse, political, 162–65

    Disorder, 150

    Dissent, religious, 16, 17–18, 20, 225. See also Religion; Sects, evangelical; specific denominations

    District of Maine. See Maine

    Dix, Elijah, 89–90, 91

    Dix, Samuel, 275

    Dollars, Continental. See Money, Continental

    Dollars, Spanish, 67, 77

    Dorrelites, 276

    Dorrell, William, 210

    Douglass, Mass., 234

    Dresser, David, 224

    Dudley, Mass., 234

    Dutch, 52

    Dwight, Timothy, 190, 309, 310

    Easthampton, Mass., 233

    Easton, Mass., 275

    East Pelham parish (Mass.), 241–43, 244–45. See also Pelham, Mass.

    Economy: in 1780s, 7, 217; and Am. Rev., 18, 22, 58, 68, 79, 133–35, 241; of backcountry, 14, 16, 22, 189–90, 192–93, 199, 295; and capitalism, 6; change in, 18, 208; Congress and, 112; of Conn., 193; courts and, 10; and debt, 101; of eastern Mass., 189; elites and, 8; farmers and, 186; Federalists on, 117; and foreign credit, 54; growth of, 59, 62, 65, 112; Henry Knox on, 169; Henry Lee on, 169; ideology and, 62; and King George’s War, 66; and loans, 65; of Maine, 295–96; of Mass., 3, 7, 133, 193–94; Mass. General Court and, 135; merchants and, 58; and money supply, 62; and political culture, 14, 169; and religion, 251–52; scholarship on, 7; and Shays’s Rebellion, 7–8, 79, 194–95, 208, 217, 241; and society, 304; state role in, 59; of towns, 134, 190; of U.S., 54

    Edwards, Jonathan, 243, 254

    Edwardseanism, 259, 260

    Egalitarianism, 57–58, 310

    Egremont, Mass., 232, 263, 267, 277

    Ejectment suits, 146, 159

    Election (Calvinist doctrine), 307

    Elections: in 1776, 69; Antifederalists and, 292–93; in backcountry, 70; Bowdoin administration and, 21, 139; Federalists and, 113–114; Friends of Government on, 12; in Maine, 157–58

    Elites: and Am. Rev., 199; in backcountry, 16, 136, 199; in Boston, 258, 313; and change, 18; and class, 189; clergy and, 207, 310; and commerce, 157; in Conn. Valley, 310; as creditors, 218, 228; and culture, 22, 188, 316; and deception, 309, 310–11; and economy, 8; and education, 150, 216, 223; factions among, 22; and farmers, 311; and Freemasonry, 209; and government, 7, 150; and government 8; in Hampshire Co., Mass., 189, 195–96; in literature, 19; in Maine, 156; and militias, 224; in N.C., 188; in N.H., 218; occupations of, 8, 113; in Pa., 188; and political culture, 15, 22, 146, 150–52, 157–58, 310; and political office, 22, 216; and religion, 188, 216, 253; scholarship on, 8; as Shaysites, 130, 156; and Shays’s Rebellion, 15, 22, 146, 152, 206; stereotypes of, 303; in Va., 188; values of, 157; wealth of, 22, 150, 151; in Worcester Co., Mass., 218

    Ellis, John, 275

    Ely, Samuel, 200, 267–69, 297, 298

    Embargoes, 283

    Emerson, John, 276

    Emerson, Joseph, 275

    Emerson, William, 275, 307

    Emmons, Nathaniel, 254

    Enfield, Conn., 262

    Enlightenment, 259, 299

    Essex Co., Mass., 68, 106, 138, 329 n. 43

    Europe, 70, 75, 111, 112, 270

    Excise, 52–53, 103. See also Taxes

    Exeter, N.H., 145–48, 150, 153, 157

    Factors, British, 11, 52, 106, 110, 116

    Fairfax, Maine, 152–53, 156

    Falmouth, Maine, 283–85, 291. See also Portland, Maine

    Falmouth Gazette, 284, 286, 290

    Faneuil Hall, 75, 110, 281

    Farmers: and Am. Rev., 22, 68, 102, 103, 134; in backcountry, 22, 123, 134, 135, 188, 190; as bankers, 65; as clergy, 256, 258; as consumers, 102, 107, 109; and courts, 102, 117; and culture, 12, 19, 316; culture of, 103, 188; and debt, 11, 113, 117, 131, 145, 194, 297; in eastern Mass., 134; and economy, 102, 186; elites on, 311; and Federalists, 104–5, 111. 117; as Friends of Government, 124; grievances of, 7; imprisonment of, 297; and Maine, 19, 296; and Mass, government, 103, 117, 134; and merchants, 11, 12, 107, 109; Minot on, 197; and money, 61, 102–4, 110, 111, 115, 117; in N.H., 147; in Pelham, Mass., 14; and prices, 68, 69–72, 70, 74, 76; and property, 65, 102, 297; scholarship on, 101, 134; and Shays’s Rebellion, 3, 102, 145; as social group, 188; stereotypes of, 303; and taxes, 102, 103, 117, 145; and trade, 74, 102; values of, 103; wealth of, 134, 190

    Farming, 17

    Farms, 16, 131, 165, 191–92

    Fathers of the People, 159

    Federalism, 11–12, 114, 117, 203, 258, 317

    Federalist, The, 6, 104, 142–43, 167, 172

    Federalists: and Annapolis convention, 114; and Antifederalists, 292, 294, 295; and Articles of Confederation, 114; and British, 105–6, 116, 117; and class, 157, 218; and commerce, 103; and Confederation, 181; and Congress, 116; and county conventions, 114; and courts, 103, 114, 117; and Daniel Shays, 179–80; and debt, 117; in drama, 318; and economy, 117; education of, 103; and farmers, 104–5, 111, 117; and federal government, 115; as Friends of Government, 152; ideology of, 115; in Maine, 157, 159, 283, 291, 295; and Mass, government, 103, 104, 117; and money, 104, 111, 117; and newspapers, 111, 116; occupations of, 106, 113, 114, 118; organization of, 111; and political culture, 116, 157, 291; and property, 103, 104; and religion, 218; scholarship on, 240; and Shaysites, 104–5, 291; and Shays’s Rebellion, 5, 12, 102, 104–6, 114–18, 179–80, 295; and taxes, 117; and towns, 103; and trade, 111, 113; and U.S. bill of rights, 293; and U.S. Constitution, 179–80, 291

    Federal political theology. See Political theology

    Feer, Robert, 85, 123, 206

    Ferguson, E. James, 334 n. 12

    Fessenden, John, 220

    Finance, 58–59

    Financiers, 114

    First Baptist Church (Boston), 258

    First Church (Amherst, Mass.), 251–52

    First Church (Boston), 254

    First Church (Templeton, Mass.), 276

    First Parish (Rehoboth, Mass.), 275

    First Presbyterian (Pelham, Mass.), 277

    Fisher, Jabez, 277

    Fiske, John, 161

    Fitchburg, Mass., 235

    Flagg, Samuel, 224, 225

    Folklore, 299, 302

    Forbush, Robert, 205

    Forrest, Uriah, 180

    Forward, Justus, 131

    Foster, Dwight, 218

    Foster, Joel, 277

    Foster, John, 276

    Foye, William, 64

    France, 52, 67, 102, 111, 112, 300

    Franchise, 22, 136

    Franklin, Benjamin, 173, 188, 307–8

    Franklin, Mass., 254

    Fraud, 59, 84, 303–4

    Freeholders, 145

    Freeman, Samuel, 284

    Freemasons, 209

    French, Joseph, 148

    French, 48, 52, 74, 213

    French and Indian War, 67, 72

    Friends of Government: and Am. Rev., 13; in Berkshire Co., Mass., 277; clergy as, 263, 266, 267, 277; and community, 223; conservative republicans as, 168; and Mass. Constitution of 1780, 223; creditors as, 16–17, 21, 22, 151–52, 218–21; debtors as, 17; as Federalists, 152; on Great Britain, 303; in Hampshire Co., Mass., 145, 263, 277; Henry Knox as, 157; local leaders as, 217, 220, 223; motives of, 20; in N.H., 145, 148–50; political culture of, 12–13, 274; and religion, 218–29, 240, 250, 255, 267; rioters as, 225; and Shaysites, 202, 303; wealth of, 214; in Worcester Co., Mass., 213–28, 245

    Friends of the People, 15, 159

    Fuller, Timothy, 252, 276

    Gardner, Mass., 235

    Garrick, David, 307

    General Court (Mass.), 68; “Address to the People” of, 59, 135, 137, 265; and Am. Rev., 252; Antifederalists and, 284, 294; and backcountry, 103; and bankruptcy, 84; and banks, 61, 65; and bills of credit, 70, 72, 102; clergy and, 205; and Congress, 54–55, 74, 331 n. 52; and consumerism, 270; and creditors, 59; Daniel Shays and, 3; and debt, 22, 49, 59, 60, 73, 137; and East Pelham parish, 241; and economy, 69, 135; factions in, 103; farmers and, 103, 117, 134; Federalists and, 103, 116, 117; Friends of Government and, 13, 139; governors and, 127; and land claims, 159; and loans, 59, 63; location of, 125–26, 286; and Maine, 156, 158–60, 285–86, 288, 289–90, 294–95; and Mass. Constitution of 1778, 135–36, 200; merchants and, 9, 11, 61; and money supply, 102; and paper money, 9, 22, 53, 60, 67, 69, 265; and political theology, 69–70; and prices, 72; reform of, 125; and religion, 242, 246, 265–66; scholarship on, 98–99, 325 n. 8; and Shaysites, 132, 140–41, 146; and Shays’s Rebellion, 134–35, 137–38, 139, 171, 297–98; and silver, 63, 66; and taxes, 8, 22, 48, 51, 53, 60, 72, 137; and tenor notes, 78; and trade, 52, 65; and treasury notes, 72; and veterans, 48, 72

    Georgetown, Maine, 283

    Gibbs, Jonas, 94

    Gill, John, 259, 260

    Gloucester, Mass., 261

    Goffe, William, 299

    Gold, 60, 62, 68, 217

    Good, public, 59, 74, 134, 317

    Gore, Christopher, 290

    Gorham, Maine, 284

    Goshen, Mass., 233

    Gould, John, 220

    Government, federal: and army, 292; conservatives and, 105; and credit, 56; and debt, 8, 55–56, 115; Federalists and, 115; and foreign powers, 55–56; and legislation, 292; merchants and, 11–12; and North, 54; politicians and, 11–12; and Shays’s Rebellion, 4–6, 11–12, 19–20, 105, 115; and South, 54; and states, 8; and taxes, 56, 292; and trade, 11–12, 115, 292

    Government, local, 21, 86, 94

    Government, provisional (Mass.), 127

    Government, republican, 55, 56, 99, 143, 166

    Government, state, 19, 20, 21, 86, 105, 151

    Government by the People, 161

    Grafton, Mass., 235, 259, 262

    Grafton Presbytery, 260

    Graham, Richard Crouch, 243

    Granby, Mass., 233

    Granet, David, 324 n. 6

    Grant, Charles, 190–91, 192, 193

    Granville, Mass., 233

    Gray, Daniel, 198, 243–44, 245, 267

    Great Awakening: Congregationalists and, 253, 254, 255–56; in Conn. Valley, 308; dissenters and, 213, 241, 256, 305–6; in Pelham, Mass., 243; and politics, 206; scholarship on, 206; and society, 304, 305–6

    Great Barrington, Mass., 232, 254

    Great Britain: clergy in, 261; consumerism in, 107; corruption in, 60; credit in, 54, 131; debt in, 60, 67; emigration from, 261; finance in, 9, 58, 59, 60, 80; Friends of Government on, 303; government of, 9, 14, 58, 60, 61, 65–66; and Mass., 9, 52, 64; merchants in, 131, 217; military expenses in, 60; money in, 63, 270–71; officials of, 63; religion in, 262; and R.I., 64; and Shays’s Rebellion, 303; silver in, 67; trade with, 52, 60, 62, 106, 111, 283; wealth in, 60; and West Indies, 112

    Great Proprietors: employees of, 154; Federalists and, 159; Henry Knox as, 157, 269, 288; and Mass, government, 156; and settlers, 146–7, 157, 159–60, 269, 288; and Waldo Patent, 269

    Greenfield, Mass., 209, 233

    Greenwich, Mass., 199, 200, 233, 276

    Gross, Robert A., 190

    Grosvenor, Daniel, 276

    Grosvenor, Ebenezer, 275

    Groton, Mass., 138, 252, 260, 275

    Habeas corpus, 177, 267

    Hadley, Mass., 190, 233

    Half-Way Covenant, 222, 229, 254, 261, 275

    Hall, Percival, 220

    Hall, Stephen, 284

    Hall, Van Beck, 206, 291

    Hamilton, Alexander, 6, 167, 172, 173, 174

    Hammond, John, 95

    Hampshire Co., Mass., 213; and border disputes, 267; class in, 213; Congregationalists in, 209, 211, 227, 233–34, 248–50, 255, 257–60, 263, 305–6, 308; county conventions in, 125, 127, 137; courts in, 200; East Pelham parish in, 241; Freemasons in, 209; Friends of Government in, 277; officials of, 195; sects in, 209, 211, 233–34, 248, 257–63, 276–77; settlement of, 188; and Shaysites, 209, 266–67, 276–77, 308; Shays’s Rebellion in, 71, 174, 187, 199, 244; and taxes, 329 n. 43; towns in, 187, 213, 233–34

    Hampstead, N.H., 148

    Hancock, John, 138, 139, 177, 272–73

    Hancock, Thomas, 66

    Hancock, Mass., 232, 262

    Handlin, Mary, 134, 136

    Handlin, Oscar, 134, 136

    Hanover, N.H., 260, 300, 301, 311, 312

    Hardwick, Mass., 235, 247

    Harlow, Ralph V, 133–34

    Hartford, Conn., 76, 268

    Harvard, Mass., 235, 263, 275

    Harvard College, 94, 176, 245, 255, 301

    Hatch, Nathan, 240

    Hatfield, Mass., 125–26, 195, 233, 244, 266

    Hawley, Joseph, 104

    Hawley, Mass., 233

    Hayden, Charles, 155

    Heath, Mass., 233

    Heimert, Alan, 206

    Hemmenway, Moses, 265

    Hemphill, Samuel, 307–8

    Henry, Patrick, 175

    Hey wood, Daniel, Jr., 89

    Higginson, Stephen, 116–17

    Hill, Abraham, 252, 277

    Hinds, Nehemiah, 244, 245

    Hingham, Mass., 111

    Historic Deerfield, Inc., 6

    History of Augusta, 157

    History of the Insurrections in Massachusetts, 104–5, 181

    History of the Rise, Progress, and Termination of the American Revolution, 181–82

    History of Western Massachusetts, 122

    Holden, Mass., 205, 235

    Holland, Josiah Gilbert, 122

    Holland, Park, 129

    Holland, 111

    Holland, Mass., 233

    Hood, Otis, 122

    Hopkins, Samuel, 254, 259

    House of Representatives (Mass.): and banks, 62; conservatives in, 103; Federalists in, 104; and Great Britain, 63; merchants in, 69; and money, 70, 92; and prices, 68, 70, 71, 74; and Shays’s Rebellion, 139. See also General Court (Mass.)

    Howard, Bezaleel, 255

    Howard, Simeon, 265

    Hubbardston, Mass., 129, 227, 235, 275

    Hunt, Ebenezer, 189

    Huntington, Joseph, 311–12

    Hutchinson, Edward, 64

    Hutchinson, Thomas, Jr., 65, 66, 333 n. 8

    Hutchinson, Thomas, Sr., 64

    Hutchinson (family), 65

    Hyde, Alvan, 277

    Hyde, Ephraim, 275

    Ideology: Am. Rev. and, 5–6, 20; in backcountry, 12–13; on bankers, 65; in Boston, 135; and class, 59; of clergy, 274; and commerce, 69; of community, 141; and conflict, 20; and consensus, 141; and credit, 58–59; and debt, 59; and economy, 62, 69; and Enlightenment, 299; Federalists and, 104, 115; and finance, 58–59; of Friends of Government, 21, 274; of merchants, 60, 61; and money, 58–63, 68–69, 74–75, 78; and political economy, 59; and prices, 58–59, 62, 74; and sectionalism, 133; of Shaysites, 21; and Shays’s Rebellion, 133; Shays’s Rebellion and, 104; and trade, 60, 62–63

    Ilsley, Enoch, 284

    Immigrants, 309

    Immigration, 187–88, 191, 242, 260, 296

    Imports, 59, 60, 70, 102, 106

    Imposters, 308–11

    Imposts, 48, 50, 52–53, 56, 103, 111, 113. See also Taxes

    Imprisonment, 85

    Indentured servitude, 84

    Independence, republican, 208

    Independent Chronicle, 164, 167, 329 n. 43

    Indians, 213, 303

    Indians, White. See White Indians

    Inflation, 58, 68–69, 72, 74–76, 92, 243. See also Economy

    Ingalls, Elkanah, 262

    Insolvency, 87, 91

    Insurrections, 167. See also Protest, popular

    Interest: concept of, 58; of debtors, 99; of General Court, 54; of merchants, 59, 111, 113; Minot on, 104–5; Shaysites and, 124

    Interest (monetary): on consolidated notes, 53; on Continental notes, 77; on promissory notes, 83; on state debt, 49, 50; on treasury notes, 58, 67

    Intolerable Acts, 135

    Ireland, Shadrack, 210

    Ireland, 187

    Italy, Renaissance, 143

    Ives, Jesse, 277

    Jackson, Henry, 141–42

    Jaffrey, N.H., 262

    J. and J. Amory (import firm), 109–10

    Jarvis, Charles, 138

    Jay, John, 6, 173, 177

    Jefferson, Thomas, 159, 171, 177, 180, 182, 298

    Jefferson, Maine, 154

    Jeffersonianism, 240

    Jeffersonians, 15, 158, 159, 361 n. 25. See also Republicans

    Jennison, Nathaniel, 85, 97

    Jennison, William, 96

    Jensen, Merrill, 123

    Johnson, Daniel, 275

    Johnson, Henry, 155

    Judd, Benjamin, 227, 267, 277

    Judd, Jonathan, 196

    Judges, 81, 91, 128, 220, 267, 283

    Justices of the peace, 127, 132, 136, 137, 200

    Karsky, Barbara, 123, 131, 186

    Keith, John, 91

    Kelly, Richard, 219

    Kennebec Co., Maine, 156

    Kennebec Proprietors, 288. See also Great Proprietors

    Kennebec River, 153, 288

    Kent, Conn., 190–91, 192, 193

    Kenyon, Cecilia, 124

    King, Richard, 151

    King, Rufus, 111, 113

    King George’s War, 66

    King’s Falls, N.H., 148, 149

    Kingston, N.H., 147

    Knox, Henry: on economy, 169; as Great Proprietor, 157, 269, 288; on Maine statehood, 290; on political thought, 162; and Shays’s Rebellion, 102, 117, 141–42, 167, 169; on U.S. Constitution, 290

    Kramnick, Isaac, 162

    Laborers, 11, 58, 62, 70, 304

    Lafayette, Marie Joseph Paul Yves Roch Gilbert du Motier, marquis de, 1, 2, 3, 129, 309, 318

    Lake (family), 288. See also Great Proprietors

    Lamb, Reubin, 225

    Lamson, Ebenezer, 262

    Lancaster, Mass., 235

    Land, 146, 159, 304. See also Property

    Landholders, 58, 65, 71, 73

    Land speculation, 61, 65, 146, 284, 295

    Lanesborough, Mass., 232, 272

    Lathrop, Joseph, 308

    Laws, 12; on bankruptcy, 84; on currency, 66; on debt, 60, 194; during Am. Rev., 133; and economy, 68; on land, 146, 159; and legal fees, 113; on legal tender, 11, 53, 92, 163, 288; and liberty, 59, 168; in Maine, 15; merchants and, 59; on paper money, 60, 62, 67–68, 79; Privy Council and, 84; and property, 59; scholarship on, 92; on specie, 68

    Lawyers: in backcountry, 102; as bankers, 65; as conservatives, 114; and courts, 201; and creditors, 137; and debtors, 93, 113, 137; education of, 94; as elites, 113; and farmers, 113; as Federalists, 113, 114; fees of, 91, 94, 113; as Friends of Government, 148; imposters as, 309; increase in, 102; and legal appeals, 93; in Maine, 154, 156, 288; and merchants, 114; in N.H., 147; number of, 18; popular opinion on, 11, 94, 97–98, 113, 114; and prices, 71; Royall Tyler as, 301; Shaysites on, 125, 303; and Supreme Judicial Court, 219; as sureties, 92–93, 220; visibility of, 18; wealth of, 113; in Worcester Co., Mass., 94, 220

    Lee, Ann, 210, 246, 247, 262

    Lee, Henry, 129, 169, 177

    Lee, Richard Henry, 169

    Lee, Mass., 232, 277

    Leicester, Mass., 95, 213–14, 220–22, 224, 235, 260

    Leicester Academy, 223

    Lenox, Mass., 232

    Leominster, Mass., 235

    Leverett, Mass., 199, 233, 276

    Lexington, Battle of, 10, 130, 252

    Lexington, Mass., 206

    Leyden, Mass., 233, 276

    Liberals. See Arminianism

    Liberty: and Am. Rev., 4, 133; and currency finance, 334 n. 12; definitions of, 168; in eastern Mass., 135; Friends of Government and, 4, 12, 21, 168; and laws, 168; in Maine, 159; protection of, 150–51; radical republicans on, 171; rulers and, 166; Samuel Ely on, 269; Shaysites and, 12, 21, 171

    Liberty Men. See White Indians

    Lincoln, Benjamin: army of, 13, 19, 21, 115, 130, 132; and Christopher Babbitt, 272; and Daniel Shays, 175; expedition of, 130, 132, 138, 139; and Mass. Constitution of 1780, 141; Mercy Otis Warren on, 181; in Petersham, Mass., 130; and Royall Tyler, 19, 301; Samuel Holden and, 126; and Shaysites, 139, 140–41

    Lincoln, Levi, 92–94

    Lincoln Co., Maine, 154, 156, 288, 291

    Lincolnville, Maine, 269

    Literature, 6, 7, 19–20, 297, 301

    Lithgow, Arthur, 156, 157

    Livermore, Jonathan, 91–92

    Livestock, 225

    Loans, 9, 58–59, 61–65, 76, 80

    Locke, John, 165, 171, 209, 228

    London, Eng.: banks in, 61; creditors in, 65; and Mass., 63, 64; and monetary policy, 66; religion in, 259, 271

    Londonderry, N.H., 243, 260

    Longmeadow, Mass., 233, 276

    Louden, Mass., 232

    Loyalists, 163; in backcountry, 199, 209, 246; as clergy, 246, 252–53, 263, 275, 276, 277; departure of, 18; Federalists and, 116; Friends of Government and, 124; in Groton, Mass., 263; in Hampshire Co., Mass., 195–96; in Maine, 283; merchants and, 106; on New Englanders, 318; property of, 106, 147, 308

    Ludlow, Mass., 233, 276

    Ludwig, Walter, 324 n. 6

    Lunenburg, Mass., 235

    Luxuries, 107, 109

    Luxury, 13, 60, 134, 137, 310, 315–17

    Lyman, Joseph, 266–67, 271, 273

    Lynde, Jonathan, 82

    McCulloch, Henry, 131, 197, 198, 202, 299

    McCulloch, Sarah, 197, 198, 299

    McCusker, John J., 342 n. 1

    McDonald, Forrest, 161

    McKendrick, Neil, 107

    McLoughlin, William G., 206, 239, 240, 270

    McMaster, John Bach, 161

    Madison, James: and Annapolis convention, 114; on monarchy, 173; on private interests, 104; on republican government, 143; on Shays’s Rebellion, 171, 177; and U.S. Constitution, 142–43; and Washington, 171, 177

    Madison, James, Sr., 177

    Magistrates: and farmers, 12; in Maine, 157; and merchants, 9; and petitioners, 165; and political culture, 13, 124; Shaysites on, 303; and Shays’s Rebellion, 8, 12–13, 124

    Maier, Pauline, 123

    Main, Jackson Turner, 131, 161

    Maine: agrarian resistance in, 14–16, 145–47; Am. Rev. in, 283–85, 292, 295; Antifederalists in, 281–83, 291–94; backcountry of, 154; British in, 283–84; class in, 19; clergy in, 269; constitution of, 19; county conventions in, 286–92, 291, 294, 296; courts in, 283, 296; debt in, 296; economy of, 295–96; farmers in, 296; Federalists in, 291, 295; Great Proprietors of, 146, 154, 156, 157, 159, 160; immigration to, 288, 296; land speculation in, 61; law in, 15; lawyers in, 288; legislature of, 15; Loyalists in, 283; and Mass. General Court, 145, 285–86, 295; merchants, 284; merchants and, 19; merchants in, 283, 288; militia in, 283, 284; newspapers in, 284, 285; officeholders in, 288; paper money in, 288, 295; political culture in, 125, 146; political culture of, 157–60; property in, 137; reports of Shays’s Rebellion in, 283, 285, 290; Shaysites in, 295, 296; statehood movement in, 19, 283, 284–92, 294–95, 296; trade with, 283, 285; and U.S. Constitution, 281–82, 283, 290–94, 295; wealth in, 153, 288–89; “White Indians” in, 146–47, 153–58

    Manchester, Eng., 262

    Manufacturers, 111

    Manufacturing, 61, 110

    Marblehead, Mass., 69

    Marini, Stephen, 206, 209

    Markets, 6, 14, 16, 18, 59, 106–9

    Marston, John, 110

    Massachusetts, Commonwealth of, 163; agriculture in, 117; and backcountry, 7, 11, 13, 14, 22; Baptists and, 209; and Confederation, 54; and Congress, 8, 49–50, 51–52, 53, 73; credit in, 47, 49–50, 52, 57, 68, 73; critics of, 20–21, 138; currency in, 78; and Daniel Shays, 3; debt in, 7, 52, 79, 80; east of, 133–36, 186; economy of, 7, 117, 217; elections in, 70, 292–93; elites in, 8, 22; factions in, 6, 20; finances of, 53; fiscal policies of, 7–8; franchise in, 22; and Great Britain, 52; Jeffersonians and, 159; leaders of, 22; and Maine, 145, 159, 283–86, 294; and merchants, 9–10, 57, 58; militia of, 21, 115, 132, 138–41, 202, 205–6, 303; Minot on, 105; mobs in, 135; monetary policy of, 1; officials of, 49, 126, 177; paper money in, 9, 58, 78, 83; political culture of, 6, 124–25, 135; prices in, 57; and religion, 266; and Rev. War debt, 1, 47, 49, 50, 54, 83; scholarship on, 9–10, 186; and Shaysites, 21, 123, 124; and Shays’s Rebellion, 2, 21, 121–23, 136–41, 173, 202; specie in, 49–50, 53, 57, 68, 78, 80; taxes in, 1, 7–9, 48–50, 53, 77, 83, 102; towns in, 133, 136; and trade, 52, 102, 117; and U.S. Constitution, 5, 6, 179, 281–82. See also Constitution of 1780 (Mass.)

    Massachusetts, Province of: and Am. Rev., 9, 48, 54, 58, 73, 133, 135; banks in, 61, 62; and centralized authority, 49; charter of, 135, 222; credit in, 57, 58, 62, 64, 67, 68; currency in, 57; debt in, 67; economy of, 58; finance in, 9, 57, 58, 67; gold in, 60; governor of, 127; and Great Britain, 9, 64; land speculation in, 61; merchants in, 9, 57, 58, 64; military expenses of, 60; monetary policy in, 66; paper money in, 9, 47–48, 60, 64, 67–68, 73–77; prices in, 57, 60; silver in, 60, 64, 66; specie in, 60, 61, 64, 67; sterling in, 60; taxes in, 9; trade with, 61, 64; treasury of, 60, 67

    Massachusetts, western. See Backcountry

    Massachusetts Centinel, 5, 135, 142, 177, 299, 310

    Massachusetts Gazette, 163

    Massachusetts Spy, 111

    Mather, Cotton, 253

    Mattoon, Ebenezer, 131, 202, 252

    May, John, Jr., 86

    Meacham, Joseph, 262

    Medford, Mass., 307

    Mediterranean (region), 112

    Medway, Mass., 254

    Memoirs of Stephen Burroughs, 301, 312, 315

    Menard, Russell R., 342 n. 1

    Mendon, Mass., 235

    Mercantilism, 110

    “Merchantile Interest,” 58, 60, 70, 78, 79. See also Merchants

    Merchants: accounts of, 82; and advertising, 107–8; and Am. Rev., 9, 58, 67, 69, 71–72, 106; and artisans, 110–11, 113; and backcountry, 9, 12, 107, 190, 217; and banks, 61, 63, 64, 65–66, 80; and British, 111, 118; and British credit, 58, 60, 65–66, 109, 131, 160; and British factors, 11, 106, 110; and British government, 58, 61, 64; and Congress, 110; in Conn., 69; as conservatives, 105, 114; and Council, 61, 68, 69, 71; and credit, 71; as creditors, 10–11, 64, 82, 131, 217; and debtors, 11, 64, 131; and economy, 11, 18, 58, 72; as elites, 9, 124; and farmers, 11, 12, 107, 109; as Federalists, 11–12, 106, 111, 113–14, 118, 281; and fiscal policy, 57, 60, 80; in Great Britain, 131, 217; in Hingham, Mass., 111; ideology of, 60, 61; interests of, 57, 59–60, 75–76, 80, 113; Isaac Backus on, 271; and Maine, 19, 153, 283, 284; and manufacturers, 111; in Marblehead, Mass., 69; and Mass, government, 9, 11, 61, 64–65, 69, 71; and militia, 115, 138, 202; and monetary policy, 9. 57–58, 60–61, 67, 71–72, 75–76, 79–80; in Newburyport, Mass., 69; in N.H., 69; in Northampton, Mass., 189; as Patriots, 58, 118; and political culture, 59; and prices, 68, 69–72, 75 and R.I., 63, 64, 66, 69; in Salem, Mass., 111; and Shaysites, 124, 303; and Shays’s Rebellion, 8, 12–13, 67, 76, 105; and social mobility, 65; and taxes, 58, 69, 76, 80; in towns, 217, 218; and trade, 18, 71, 109, 110–11, 112–13; wealth of, 10, 124, 301; in Worcester Co., Mass., 94, 131, 218

    Merchants’ money. See Notes, treasury

    Meritocracy, 157, 309

    Merrill, Nathaniel, 243, 277

    Merrimack Valley, 260

    Metz, William, 333 n. 8

    Micawber, Mr., 81, 90

    Michener, Ronald, 338 n. 29

    Middleborough, Mass., 209, 257

    Middlefield, Mass., 233

    Middlesex Co., Mass.: clergy in, 250, 275; conventions in, 127; Friends of Government in, 133; and Gov. Bowdoin, 138; religion in, 263, 275; Shaysites in, 21, 139, 275

    Middle States, 131

    Middleton, Mass., 252

    Milford, Mass., 235

    Militias: and Am. Rev., 130, 284; captains of, 208, 210, 218–19; and Congress, 303; debtors in, 17; in Maine, 155, 156, 283, 284; merchants and, 202; in N.H., 148; officers of, 224; and religion, 221, 226; Shaysites and, 128, 131; and Shays’s Rebellion, 132, 202, 205–6, 218–19; in Worcester Co., Mass., 213, 218, 221, 224

    Millennialism, 240, 272

    Minot, George Richards: on courts, 98–99; and Fisher Ames, 181; on Mass. Constitution of 1780, 143; on monetary policy, 92; on religion, 239; on Shaysites, 197; on Shays’s Rebellion, 13, 79, 104–5, 117, 121–22, 142–143, 181; on U.S. Constitution, 181

    Mississippi River, 112

    Mobility, social, 18, 308–9

    Monarchy, 142, 166, 173

    Money, Continental, 49, 58, 68, 70–78

    Money, hard. See Specie

    Money, paper: Antifederalists on, 291; backcountry and, 9, 11; Congress and, 77, 101; conservatives and, 115; and consumer purchases, 107; county conventions on, 76, 126, 163; creditors and, 104; and debt, 60; in eastern Mass., 103; and economic development, 57–58; farmers and, 102, 103, 104, 110, 115, 117; Federalists and, 104, 117; Great Britain and, 63–65, 270–71; and ideology, 57–59, 63, 68, 78; issues of, 69, 107, 109; laborers and, 62, 70; law on, 60, 62, 66, 67, 68; in Maine, 288, 295; Mass. General Court and, 22, 53, 60, 67, 69, 265; Mass. governors on, 65, 66; merchants and, 9, 58, 60, 67, 70–71, 75, 79; in N.H., 147; in N.Y., 107, 109; opponents of, 62, 78; redemption of, 67, 77; R.I. and, 62, 64, 65; Shaysites and, 127; and specie, 62; sale of, 83, 109; speculation in, 308; supporters of, 57–58, 61, 62–63; and taxes, 65, 66, 68, 77, 109; and trade, 60; and trader, 70; and trades, 74; value of, 60, 65, 67–68, 77, 126, 217. See also Currency finance; Law: on legal tender; Specie; specific bills and notes

    Monson, Mass., 233, 277

    Montague, Mass., 233

    Montgomery, Mass., 233

    Moore, William, 108

    Moral economy, 207, 225

    Moral philosophy, 62

    Morris, Robert, 48, 113

    Morse, Joshua, 257

    Morse, Royall, 301

    Morse, Samuel, 149

    Moss, Reuben, 277

    Mount Washington, Mass., 232

    Murray, John, 261

    National Endowment for the Humanities, 6

    Nationalism, 111, 124

    Nationalists, 5, 48, 113

    New Ashford, Mass., 232, 277

    New Braintree, Mass., 220, 224, 225, 235

    Newbury, Mass., 68, 132

    Newburyport, Mass., 68, 69, 94

    New Divinity Evangelicalism, 254–55, 260

    New England: community studies on, 190, 193, 203; ethnicity in, 196; farms in, 131; Federalists in, 157; merchants in, 112–13; political culture in, 195; and Robert Morris, 113; and sectionalism, 112; and South, 112, 114; and Spanish-American treaty, 112; and trade, 112–13, 114

    New England Way, 16

    New Gloucester, Maine, 281

    New Hampshire, 109; clergy in, 260–61, 300, 311; courts in, 163; elites in, 218; and fiscal policy, 69, 71; newspapers in, 163; publication in, 301; religion in, 210, 243, 260–61, 262, 311; Shaysites in, 146; uprisings in, 55, 145, 146, 147–50, 151, 153; and U.S. Constitution, 282, 294

    New Hampshire Mercury, 163

    New-Haven Gazette, 178

    New Jersey, 6

    New Lebanon, N.Y., 262

    New Lights: Eden Burroughs as, 311; and Jonathan Edwards, 259; in Pelham, Mass., 243; and political theology, 270; and property, 225; and Separate Baptists, 256, 259–60; and Shays’s Rebellion, 272, 273; and Singing Controversy, 253

    New Light Stir, 209–10, 247, 256, 257, 260, 261

    New Marlborough, Mass., 232

    Newport, R.I., 49, 64, 66, 215, 254

    New Providence, Mass., 209, 232

    New Salem, Mass., 233, 241, 258, 277

    New Side Presbytery, 260

    New York: Antifederalists in, 176; conservative republicans in, 172; Daniel Shays in, 1, 2; in drama, 317; frontiers of, 2; government of, 174; immigration to, 191; paper money in, 107, 109; prices in, 71; radical republicans in, 174; religion in, 210, 262; Shaysites in, 301; and Shays’s Rebellion, 174; and U.S. Constitution, 6, 174, 180

    New York City, 302, 316, 319

    New York Evening Post, 2

    Niskeyuna, N.Y., 210, 262

    North, James W., 157

    Northampton, Mass.: Am. Rev. in, 195–96; class in, 189, 195–96; courts in, 104, 267, 285, 297; Freemasons in, 209; Friends of Government in, 233; merchants in, 189; newspapers in, 103; religion in, 233, 243; Shaysites in, 209, 233; Shays’s Rebellion in, 267; Stephen Burroughs in, 315; wealth in, 190

    Northborough, Mass., 235

    Northbridge, Mass., 235, 260

    North Carolina, 188

    Northfield, Mass., 209, 233

    North Yarmouth, Maine, 288

    Norwich, Mass., 233

    Notes, army, 50, 52, 53

    Notes, consolidated, 50, 52, 53, 79, 109

    Notes, depreciation, 49, 50

    Notes, merchants’, 64, 65

    Notes, promissory, 67, 73, 82–83

    Notes, state, 107, 109

    Notes, tenor, 78

    Notes, treasurer’s, 49, 58

    Notes, treasury, 67, 69, 72–76, 79, 338 n. 29

    Nye, Ebenezer, 219

    Nye, Timothy, 219

    Oakham, Mass., 17, 213, 214, 218–20, 235, 275

    Officeholding, 166, 208, 288, 292, 308

    Officers, military, 103, 114, 132

    Officers, militia, 132, 224

    Offices, public, 125, 216, 227

    Offices, religious, 207, 208

    Old Lights, 255, 306

    Onuf, Peter S., 325 n. 13

    Orange, Mass., 233

    Order, social, 15, 59, 150, 306

    Orders, treasurers, 109

    Orders-in-council, 52

    Orne, Azor, 69, 71, 75

    Osborne, John, 64

    Oxford, Mass., 225, 235, 262

    Paine, Robert Treat, 71, 73, 130

    Paine, Thomas, 55

    Palmer, Mass., 234, 261

    Parker, John, 82

    Parker, Nehemiah, 275

    Parliament, 51, 61, 66

    Parmalee, Elisha, 277

    Parrington, Vernon Louis, 123

    Parsons, David, Sr., 251

    Parsons, David, II, 251–52

    Parsons, Eli, 129

    Parsons, Samuel Holden, 126

    Partisanship, 163–64

    Partridgefield, Mass., 232

    Patch, Nathan, 82, 90

    Patriots, 118, 170, 246, 310

    Patronage, 206

    Paxton, Mass., 220, 235, 276

    Paxton Boys, 188

    Peace of Utrecht, 213

    Peckham, Samuel, 246

    Pejepscot Company, 288. See also Great Proprietors

    Pelham, Mass., 4, 306; agriculture in, 192–93; and Am. Rev., 195–97, 305; class in, 193, 212; clergy in, 19, 212, 242–44, 300, 304–5; Congregationalists in, 234; and county conventions, 198; culture of, 14, 15; Daniel Shays in, 129, 185, 187, 195–97, 299, 301; economy of, 14, 193–94, 243; ethnicity in, 14, 187–88, 189; farms in, 191–92; Friends of Government in, 234; in literature, 301; and Mass. constitutions, 14, 200; political culture of, 13–14, 187, 195–97, 198, 199; Presbyterians in, 14, 187–89, 212, 242–45, 248, 260, 277, 304–5; Scots-Irish in, 304–5; sects in, 234; settlement of, 187–88, 190, 191; Shaysites in, 131, 187, 194, 202, 234, 267, 298–99, 313; and Shays’s Rebellion, 187, 198, 302; and Stephen Burroughs, 19, 196, 212, 243–44, 299–30, 304–5, 308, 313–14; taxes in, 245; wealth in, 189, 191, 193

    Peltason, J.W., 161

    Pembroke, N.H., 148

    Pennsylvania, 55, 127, 170, 180, 188, 316

    Penobscot expedition, 49, 327 n. 14

    Pepperell, Mass., 275

    Petersham, Mass.: Am. Rev. in, 246; clergy in, 252; Friends of Government in, 235, 245; government troops in, 132; religion in, 235, 245–48, 252; Shaysites in, 132, 145, 150, 157, 235, 245; Shays’s Rebellion in, 121, 130, 132, 245, 298

    Petitioners, 166, 167

    Petitions, 125,165–66, 289–90, 294

    Philadelphia, Pa., 291; currency in, 77; nationalists in, 113; Paxton Boys in, 188; regional conferences in, 76; religion in, 307–8; U.S. Constitutional Convention in, 4, 6, 56, 102, 161, 173, 179, 186, 292

    Phillipston, Mass., 235

    Pickering, John, 138

    Pickering, Timothy, 106, 138

    Pilgrim’s Progress, The, 299

    Pittsfield, Mass., 136, 232, 257–58, 262, 272, 277

    Placemen, 165

    Plagiarism, 307–8

    Plainfield, Mass., 234

    Plumer, William, 147–49, 151

    Pluralism, 157, 222–23, 241, 274

    Plymouth Co., Mass., 209, 215

    Political culture: and Am. Rev., 18, 150, 199–200; of backcountry, 13, 15–16, 199–200, 203; change in, 162, 165; of community, 203, 207; and consensus, 141; elites and, 13, 151–52; Henry Knox on, 162; in New England, 195; of Pelham, Mass., 195–97, 198, 199; and political discourse, 165; and reform, 165; and religion, 206, 225–29, 261; and resistance, 165; and revolution, 165; Shaysites and, 146, 150–51, 152; and Shays’s Rebellion, 162, 202–3; in towns, 13; of White Indians, 146

    Political economy, 7, 59, 62

    Political science, 7

    Political scientists, 12, 161–62

    Political theology, 263–74

    Politicians, 11–12, 22, 65

    Politics, 162, 221–24, 240–41, 252–53, 255, 263–74

    Polls, 53

    Pope, Joseph, 227, 276

    “Popular Party,” 61

    Populism, 22, 104

    Populists, 57–58, 65

    Porter, Nehemiah, 276

    Portland, Maine, 284–85, 287, 288, 289, 295. See also Falmouth, Maine

    Portsmouth, N.H., 148

    Portugal, 112

    Power, 18, 168

    Pownalborough, Maine, 283

    Presbyterianism, 260–61

    Presbyterians: in Bristol Co., Mass., 275; clergy of, 307–8; divisions among, 276; in folklore, 189; in Groton, Mass., 260, 263; in Hampshire Co., Mass., 260, 263, 276–77; immigration by, 187–88; in Middlesex Co., Mass., 275; in N.H., 243, 311; in Pelham, Mass., 14, 187–89, 212, 242, 244–45, 248, 304–5; political culture of, 261; and revivals, 256; Shaysites as, 244; in Worcester Co., Mass., 187, 275

    Presbytery of Boston, 243

    Presbytery of Londonderry, N.H., 243

    Prescott, Oliver, 138

    Prices: and Am. Rev., 74; backcountry and, 13; in Commonwealth of Mass., 68; controls on, 58, 68, 69–77, 74, 75; decline in, 72; in farm communities, 68; and ideology, 58–59; 62; of silver, 60, 64, 65; in towns, 68

    Princeton, Mass., 235, 252, 253, 260, 276

    Privileges, 165

    Privy Council (Great Britain), 84

    Property, 165; clergy and, 242, 249; conservatives and, 104, 127; of creditors, 105; as debt payment, 84, 137, 194, 297, 344 n. 6; of farmers, 102, 297; of Loyalists, 106, 147, 308; in Maine, 137, 159, 160; Mass. Senate and, 104; and officeholding, 292; protection of, 59, 150, 225; Shaysites and, 127, 130, 145; Shays’s Rebellion and, 169; and taxes, 69, 137; value of, 160

    Protection covenant, 15–16, 136, 146, 150, 152, 157–59

    Protest, popular: and Am. Rev., 14, 124, 126–28, 151–52, 163, 165, 286; in backcountry, 14–16; clergy and, 269; conservative republicans/Friends of Government on, 167–68; decentralization of, 147; and economy, 169; elites and, 150–51, 152; and Hatfield convention, 125; liberals on, 4; in Maine, 14–15, 125, 146–47, 153–58; in N.H., 14–15; in Pelham, Mass., 14; and political discourse, 163–64; and protection covenant, 150–51; radical republicans/Shaysites on, 13, 115, 124, 162, 172; as rebellion, 143, 162, 171–74, 180–82, 291, 298; and religion, 264–65; and republicanism, 6, 124–25, 152; as resistance, 162, 164, 165–67, 170, 182, 195; as revolution, 12, 16, 20, 162, 165, 170–72, 182; scholarship on, 7, 123; and Shays’s Rebellion, 174; in Va., 169; and wealth, 169

    Protestantism, 205, 206, 242

    Providence, R.I., 69, 71, 73

    Providence resolves, 69–70

    Pruitt, Bettye Hobbs, 192–93

    Puritanism, 58–59, 207, 229, 242, 306

    Puritans, 16, 17, 21, 299

    Putnam, Rufus, 132, 303

    Pynchon, William, 130

    Quakers, 188, 256, 260, 262

    Queen Anne’s War, 57, 60, 61

    Radical Sects of Revolutionary New England, 206

    Rand, William, 306

    Rathbun, Valentine, 257, 258

    Rawson, Edward, 220

    Rawson, Grindall, 308

    Rawson, Timothy, 87–89, 90, 91, 93, 97, 99

    Read, Samuel, Jr., 87

    Reagan, Ronald W., 5

    Reason, 167–68

    Rebellion, agrarian. See Protest, popular

    Recession. See Depression, economic

    Reed, Solomon, 246

    Reed, William, 275

    Reeves, Ezra, 277

    Reform, 69, 123, 162, 165, 175, 182

    Reformation men, 225

    Regulating acts, 70–71, 72, 76

    Regulation. See Protest, Popular; Shays’s Rebellion

    Regulators (Mass.). See Shay sites

    Regulators (N.C.), 188

    Regulators (N.H.). See Shaysites

    Rehoboth, Mass., 275

    Religion: in Amherst, Mass., 251–52; and Am. Rev., 206, 208–10, 240, 242, 246, 249–50, 255–57, 264, 272–73; in Andover, Mass., 265; and Anti-federalism, 206, 240; in backcountry, 16–18, 206, 210, 241, 255, 262, 272, 305, 312; in Bellingham, Mass., 258; in Berkshire Co., Mass., 209, 211, 248–49, 254, 257–58, 262–63, 277; in Billerica, Mass., 265; in Blackstone Valley, 225; in Boston, 243, 253–54, 258, 260–61, 265, 271; in Bristol Co., Mass., 257, 263, 275; change in, 17, 241, 245, 263; in Chileab, Mass., 258; and class, 213–21; and community, 207–8; in Concord, Mass., 255, 307; conflict in, 17–18; in Conn., 262, 267–68, 311–12; in Conn. Valley, 261, 308; Continental army and, 209, 210; and culture, 241, 258; Daniel Shays and, 244, 245; and economy, 251–52; elites and, 188; and ethnicity, 242, 245, 260; and Federalism, 218, 258; Friends of Government and, 218–29, 240, 250, 255; in Gloucester, Mass., 261; in Great Britain, 262, 271; in Hampshire Co., Mass., 209, 211–12, 227, 248–49, 252, 255, 257–59, 261–63, 306, 308; and Jeffersonianism, 158, 240; in Maine, 265; and Mass. constitutions, 217, 222, 241–42, 245, 247; Mass. government and, 242, 265–66; in Medford, Mass., 307; in Middlesex Co., Mass., 252, 263, 275; in N.H., 210, 243, 260–61, 262, 311; in N.Y., 210, 262; offices of, 207, 208, 244; in Palmer, Mass., 261; and parish system, 251–52; in Pelham, Mass., 300; in Philadelphia, 307–8; and pluralism, 241; and political culture, 206, 225–29, 259, 264–65; and politics, 221–23, 240–41, 252–53, 255, 263–74; in R.I., 256, 257; in Salem, Mass., 261; scholarship on, 7, 240, 248; Shaysites and, 207, 213–29, 244–45, 250, 255, 266–69, 274; and Shays’s Rebellion, 6, 17, 20, 205–7, 210, 230–31, 239–40, 248–49, 263–74; in Shirley, Mass., 262; and society, 17, 253, 304; in Suffolk Co., Mass., 254; and taxes, 17, 20, 207, 217, 241–43, 245, 251, 257, 260, 263, 311; in towns, 261, 262; and U.S. Constitution, 258; in Va., 188; in Vt., 257; and wealth, 216, 263; women and, 253; in Worcester Co., Mass., 94, 187, 209, 211, 213–29, 245–49, 252–53, 255, 257, 259–63, 275, 311. See also Clergy; New Lights; Sects, evangelical; specific denominations

    Religion and the American Mind from the Great Awakening to the Revolution, 206

    Relly, James, 261

    Republicanism: and anarchy, 316; Anti-federalists and, 282–83; in backcountry, 12, 15, 135; and class, 3, 12, 15, 151, 157; conservative republicans and, 167; debtors and, 166; eastern Mass. and, 124, 133, 135; and factions, 169; Friends of Government and, 13, 14; in Maine, 157, 160, 282–83; Mass. government and, 22, 124–25; and popular protest, 124–25; rhetoric of, 308–9; scholarship on, 143; Shaysites and, 14, 124, 203; and Shays’s Rebellion, 3, 6, 316; and social order, 124; and U.S. Constitution, 282. See also Political culture

    Republicans, 3, 15, 162, 166–79, 203

    Republics, 1, 4, 13, 142–43, 172, 317

    Resistance. See Protest, popular: as resistance

    Revenue, 52–53, 61, 111, 113

    Revivals, 210, 246, 256, 257, 308

    Revolution, American: achievements of, 47, 188; in Amherst, Mass., 209; anniversary of, 1, 2; army of, 128–29, 130, 132; backcountry and, 13–14, 20, 22, 133–35, 203; in Boston, 133; British sabotage of, 105–6, 116; and change, 18, 20, 102; clergy and, 205–6, 249–50, 252–53, 261, 298, 305, 307; and community, 186, 187; Congress and, 47–48, 74; conservative republicans on, 171; and county conventions, 104; and courts, 201; and credit, 51, 54, 58; and culture, 255, 319; Daniel Shays and, 1–3, 170, 212, 309; and debt, 47, 48, 55–56; and economy, 18, 22, 53, 58, 68, 74, 79, 133–35, 241, 243; elites and, 151; farmers and, 22, 102, 103, 134; and finance, 1, 47–48, 53, 58, 68–74, 77–78, 80; French and, 48; in Hampshire Co., Mass., 201, 209, 305; and ideology, 5–6, 20, 151; Isaac Backus on, 271; Lafayette and, 1; in Maine, 283–85, 292, 295; in Mass., 9, 133–35; in Mass, and, 54; and “Merchantile Interest,” 58; merchants and, 9, 58, 67, 72, 106; militias in, 130; and money, 57, 67, 68–72, 79; in Pelham, Mass., 195–97; and political culture, 18, 143, 150, 163, 199–200, 241, 310; and popular protest, 124, 126–27, 128, 151–52, 165, 286; and religion, 206, 208–10, 240, 242, 246, 249–50, 255–57, 264, 272–73; Samuel Adams on, 170; Samuel Thompson and, 283–84, 292; Shaysites and, 124, 125, 129–30, 135–36, 150, 194, 227; Shaysites on, 170; Shays’s Rebellion and, 3, 4, 7, 12–13, 186; and society, 18, 304, 308–9, 310; states and, 47, 48; and taxes, 54, 70; towns and, 133; veterans of, 2, 13, 103, 132, 165, 194, 227, 261, 284, 288; and wealth, 308; in Worcester Co., Mass., 209, 246, 247

    Revolution, French, 182

    Rhode Island: and Am. Rev., 49, 213; merchants in, 64, 66; and monetary policy, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 69; and prices, 71; reformation men in, 225; religion in, 256, 257

    Rice, Samuel, 227

    Rich, Caleb, 261–62

    Richardson, Tilly, 86

    Riche, John, 124

    Richmond, Mass., 232

    Richmond, N.H., 260, 262

    Riot acts, 177, 205

    Riots, 225, 228

    Ripley, Ezra, 255

    River Gods, 195, 212, 218, 310

    Road, Daniel, 89, 91, 92

    Robinson Crusoe, 299

    Rochambeau, Donatien Marie Joseph de Vimeur, vicomte de, 49

    Rockingham Co., N.H., 147

    Rogerson, Robert, 275

    Rothenberg, Winifred, 342 n. 1

    Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 171

    Rowe, John, 67

    Rowe, Mass., 138–39, 233

    Royalston, Mass., 235

    Rulers, 165–66, 168–69

    Russell, Benjamin, 5

    Russell, Joseph, 276

    Rutland, Mass., 107, 235, 244, 313, 314

    Salem, Mass., 111, 138, 261

    Salem Village, Mass., 17

    Salisbury, Stephen, 83, 84, 85, 90, 95–97, 131

    Salisbury (brother of Stephen Salisbury), 96

    Sandisfield, Mass.; 232

    S. and S. Salisbury (importers), 108

    Sanford, David, 254

    Sargent, Winthrop, 138

    Savage, Samuel Phillips, 138

    Scarborough, Maine, 151, 284, 288

    Scots, 242, 261

    Scots-Irish: and class, 189; and discrimination, 187, 196; in Hampshire Co., Mass., 14, 187–89, 196, 242, 245, 260, 301; in Middlesex Co., Mass., 260; and religion, 14, 242, 245, 260, 287–89; Stephen Burroughs and, 301, 304–5, 313, 314; in Worcester Co., Mass., 187

    Seaports: and Am. Rev., 133–34; debtors in, 217–18; in Maine, 288–89; merchants in, 217–18; prices in, 70; religion in, 261; and Shays’s Rebellion, 20; tax collectors in, 50; trade with, 70, 74

    Second Church (Templeton, Mass.), 276

    Second Parish (Rehoboth, Mass.), 275

    Second Presbyterian (Pelham, Mass.), 277

    Sectarianism, 207

    Sectionalism, 113, 133

    Sects, evangelical: in backcountry, 16, 17–18, 29, 305–6; in Berkshire Co., Mass., 209, 211, 232; and clergy, 264; Friends of Government and, 239; in Hampshire Co., Mass., 211, 233–34; in Plymouth Co., Mass., 209; proliferation of, 210; and revivals, 241, 256; Shaysites and, 212, 213, 214–16, 217, 239; in Worcester Co., Mass., 211, 212, 213, 214–16, 234–35. See also Religion; specific denominations

    Securities, 109, 217, 325 n. 8

    Sedgwick, Theodore, 113

    Sedition acts, 177

    Selectmen, 70, 129, 208, 218–19, 223, 227

    Sellon, John, 247

    Senate (Mass.), 92, 104, 125, 127, 136, 139. See also General Court (Mass.)

    Separates, 259, 267–69, 305, 311. See also Baptists, Separate

    Separation movement (Maine), 284–92, 294–95, 296

    Separatism, 19

    Settling. See Clergy: employment of

    Sewall, David, 291

    Sewall, Samuel, Jr., 64

    Sewall, Stephen, 84, 96–97

    Shaftesbury, Vt., 257

    Shaftesbury Baptist Association, 259, 260

    Shakerism, 262

    Shakers: in backcountry, 210; in Hampshire Co., Mass., 276; in Middlesex Co., Mass., 275; establishment of, 256, 261; and pacificism, 273; and public life, 18; in Rehoboth, Mass., 275; in Shaysite towns, 17; theology of, 270, 272, 274; in Worcester Co., Mass., 246–47, 275, 277

    Shattuck, Job, 130, 178

    Shaw, Peter, 126

    Shays, Abigail, 244, 302

    Shays, Daniel: and Am. Rev., 1–3, 129, 130, 170, 212, 251, 274, 309, 313; Anti-federalists on, 176, 180, 181–82; at Springfield arsenal, 121, 126, 139; and Benjamin Lincoln, 175; birth of, 129; in Brookfield, Mass., 194; Commonwealth of Mass, on, 197; contemporaries on, 1–4, 129, 170, 178, 198, 273, 309; and county conventions, 198; as creditor, 129; in culture, 4, 178, 185, 318, 319; death of, 1, 2; as debtor, 194; defeat of, 174, 177; elites on, 309–10; and expansion, 20; as farmer, 129, 185; Federalists / conservative republicans and, 172–73, 179–80; as Freemasons, 209; as fugitive, 302; goals of, 126; and Lafayette, 1, 129, 309, 318; letters of, 166; as local leader, 198; in Mass., 1, 6; in N.Y., 1, 2; in Pelham, Mass., 129, 185, 187, 195–98, 299, 301; political thought of, 126, 166, 170; punishment of, 2, 3; and religion, 244, 245; Royall Tyler and, 319; scholarship on, 3, 130, 197–98; and Shays’s Rebellion, 1–2, 115, 163, 175, 198–99, 201–2, 298–99, 303–4; in Vt., 2, 3, 180; wealth of, 1, 129, 181, 309

    Shaysites: and Am. Rev., 60, 124, 125, 129–30, 131, 135–36, 150, 170, 194, 227; as armed force, 115, 125–27, 128–29; artisans as, 145; Benjamin Lincoln and, 140–41; in Berkshire Co., Mass., 211; casualties of, 121; characteristics of, 130–32, 149, 150, 194; and class, 217–21, 223; clergy as, 267–69; in Concord, Mass., 128; contemporaries on, 123, 131–32; and county conventions, 125, 127, 219–20, 244; and courts, 108–9, 125, 127–28, 145–46, 151; and creditors, 17, 194, 219–21; in culture, 297; culture of, 21–22; and debt, 16–17, 108–9, 123, 131, 145, 194, 219–21, 223–24; defeat of, 146, 152, 157; and elites, 130, 147–48, 156, 206, 303; farmers as, 145, 185; Federalists on, 101–2, 104–5, 291; as Freemasons, 209; and Friends of Government, 303; goals of, 123–28, 146, 151, 225; and Gov. Bowdoin, 124, 126, 127, 137, 140–41; grievances of, 125, 145, 186, 267; in Hampshire Co., Mass., 209, 210, 308; and Jeffersonians, 158; leaders of, 270, 303–4; and liquor, 197, 299; local leaders as, 208, 217, 219–21, 227, 228, 239; and Maine, 287, 288, 291, 295, 296; and Mass. Constitution of 1780, 125, 133, 135–36, 141; and Mass. General Court, 125, 132, 137–38, 140–41, 146; and merchants, 124; in Middlesex Co., Mass., 139; Minot on, 99; in N.H., 147–48, 151, 153; in N.Y., 301; organization of, 123; and paper money, 127; in Pelham, Mass., 131, 187, 194, 202, 267, 298–99, 313; and political culture, 124, 145–46, 150–51, 152, 157, 166, 203; and property, 127, 1430–31, 145; punishment of, 121, 124, 126, 137, 139–41, 149, 152, 173, 177, 202, 267, 299; and religion, 205–7, 213–29, 239, 244–45, 250, 255, 266–69, 274; as Republicans, 203; rhetoric of, 170; and Royall Tyler, 301–3; scholarship on, 122–24, 197–98; in Springfield, Mass., 21, 150, 157, 267; and state government, 151; and taxes, 123, 127,145, 158; and U.S. Constitutional Convention, 130; in Vt., 129, 267, 301, 302; wealth of, 131, 158, 214, 239, 313; in Worcester Co., Mass., 128, 130, 132, 150, 157, 206, 211, 213–28, 245

    Shays’s Rebellion: Adams on, 182, 193, 301; aftermath of, 176–79; and Am. Rev., 3, 4, 7, 12–13, 186; as anarchy, 177; Antifederalists and, 175–76, 180–82; backcountry and, 12–13, 20, 200, 282; Barbara Karsky on, 123, 186; in Berkshire Co., Mass., 174, 199, 287; Boston and, 115, 124, 138; British and, 105–6, 116, 303; Cambridge, Mass., and, 115; casualties of, 121, 224; and change, 20, 21–22, 103; and class, 15, 20, 22, 79–82, 117, 123, 212–16; clergy and, 205–7, 210, 220, 224, 227, 264–65, 270; commemoration of, 5, 324 n. 6; Commonwealth of Mass. and, 2–3, 102, 112–23, 163, 173, 197, 202; and community, 186–87, 207, 208, 212, 228, 248–49; Concord, Mass., and, 138; in Conn., 190; conservatives and, 115, 171, 177–78; contemporaries on, 2–5, 134–35, 138–39, 170; and county conventions, 114, 123, 127, 302; and courts, 2, 10–11, 81, 114, 122–23, 135, 139, 145, 151, 163, 199–202, 205–6, 213, 217, 224–25, 227, 285, 297–98, 302; creditors and, 16–17, 76, 117, 228; and culture, 103, 298, 315–19; Daniel Shays and, 1–2, 115, 163, 175, 298–99; David Szatmary on, 123, 161, 239; and debt, 55, 78; debtors and, 16–17, 76, 117, 228; and economy, 6–8, 79, 194–95, 208, 217, 241; elites and, 8, 22, 146, 152, 158; and factions, 104; farmers and, 76; and federal government, 105, 115; Federalists and, 101–2, 104–6, 114–18, 179–80, 295; in folklore, 122; Gordon Wood on, 123, 161; in Hampshire Co., Mass., 174, 199, 244, 267, 302; Henry Knox on, 117, 167, 169; Henry Lee on, 169; and ideology, 104, 133; James Warren on, 170; James Winthrop and, 176; Jeffersonians and, 361 n. 25; Jefferson on, 171; John L. Brooke on, 239–40; Joseph Warren on, 122–23; leaders of, 197, 198, 208; Leftist historians on, 4, 80; and literature, 6, 12, 122, 297; Madison on, 171, 177; and Maine, 283, 285, 286–87, 290, 295; Marion Starkey on, 239; Mass, and, 5, 6, 13; and Mass. Constitution of 1780, 102; Mass. General Court and, 134–35, 137–39, 171, 297–98; merchants and, 8–9, 67, 76, 105, 115, 124; in Middlesex Co., Mass., 21; as military contest, 127, 133; and militia, 205–6, 218–19; Minot on, 13, 79, 104–5, 121–22, 142, 143; and monetary policy, 9, 67; nationalist historians on, 4, 8; in N.H., 13, 174; and N.Y., 174; organization of, 115; in Pelham, Mass., 244–45; Peter S. Onuf on, 325 n. 13; and political culture, 105, 158, 162, 174, 197, 202–3, 207; political scientists on, 161–62; and politics, 224, 241; Progressive historians on, 7, 79–80, 123, 161; and property, 169; and public opinion, 116–17; radical republicans and, 169, 174; and reform, 123; and regionalism, 133, 189; and religion, 6, 17, 20, 205–7, 210, 230–31, 239–40, 248–49, 263–74; and republicanism, 143; results of, 22; Richard Brown on, 161; Robert Feer on, 123, 206; Robert J. Taylor on, 198; Ronald Reagan on, 5; and Rowe, Mass., 138–39; Royall Tyler and, 301–3, 315–19; Samuel Adams on, 169; scholarship on, 5–7, 51, 81, 101, 185–86, 299; scope of, 115, 174; Shakers and, 272; significance of, 6, 55, 123, 126, 143, 186; and society, 17, 20, 186, 298; in Springfield, Mass., 2, 103, 121, 123, 126, 129–30, 139, 150, 197, 201–2, 298; states and, 19; Stephen Burroughs on, 302, 314; Stephen Marini on, 206; suppression of, 55, 101–2, 121, 123–24, 145, 147–50, 174, 202; and taxes, 5, 7, 8, 55; towns and, 12–13, 20. 187; and U.S. Constitution, 3–5, 7, 102, 105, 161–62, 178–80, 185–86; Van Beck Hall, 206; and wealth, 105, 221; William G. McLoughlin on, 206, 239, 249; in Worcester Co., Mass., 199, 206, 213, 236–38, 245, 298

    Sheffield, Mass., 232

    Shelburne, Mass., 234

    Shepherd, William, 129, 139–40

    Sheridan, Richard, 302

    Sherman, Asaph, 93

    Sherman, David, 88

    Shirley, William, 66

    Shirley, Mass., 247, 275, 298

    Shrewsbury, Mass., 235

    Shurtleleff, James, 159

    Shutesbury, Mass., 199, 209, 234, 252, 277

    Sibley, Joseph, 88

    Silver, 60, 62–68, 217

    Singing Controversy, 253, 276

    Singletary, Amos, 220

    Smith, Ebenezer, Jr., 258

    Smith, Ebenezer, Sr., 258

    Smith, Jonathan, 101, 102

    Smith, Melancton, 175–76

    Smith, Nathan, 298

    Snow, Seth, 220

    Society: and Am. Rev., 304; in backcountry, 186; change in, 18, 20, 304, 308; and communitarianism, 124; and culture, 19; and debt, 82, 225; and economy, 304; elites and, 310; and land pressures, 304; and religion, 17, 253, 304; and republicanism, 124; and Shays’s Rebellion, 17, 298; and taxes, 225

    Solemn League and Covenant, 283

    Somers, Conn., 267, 268, 269

    Sons of Liberty, 124

    Southampton, Mass., 196, 234

    Southborough, Mass., 86, 235

    South Brimfield, Mass., 234, 277

    Southgage, Isaac, 224

    South Hadley, Mass., 234, 308

    South Leicester, Mass., 226

    South Sea Bubble Act, 66

    Southwick, Mass., 234

    Spain, 111, 112

    Sparhawk, Ebenezer, 276

    Sparta, N.Y., 1

    Specie: and Am. Rev., 74; availability of, 66, 109, 136, 111; in backcountry, 109; and banks, 61; Board of Trade on, 65; in cities, 109; Commonwealth of Mass, and, 1, 78; Congress and, 52; and credit, 82; creditors and, 50, 53, 78; and currency, 57; and debt, 86; debtors and, 82; and debt payments, 48, 52, 60; farmers and, 111; Federalists and, 111; Hutchinson on, 66; and ideology, 58–59, 60, 62–63, 74–75; issues of, 60, 137; and loans, 58; Mass, government and, 50, 51, 66, 68; merchants and, 9, 57, 60, 80; opposition to, 74–75, 92; and paper money, 52, 62, 65, 67; and paper money supporters, 62; Province of Mass, and, 60, 61, 64, 67; and taxes, 8, 50, 51, 52, 53; and trade, 82; value of, 48, 49, 62, 83

    Speculation, 50–51, 308

    Speculators, 73, 163

    Spencer, Mass.: creditors in, 17, 214, 216, 219–20; debtors in, 214–15, 219, 220; elites in, 218, 219–20; Friends of Government in, 214–16, 219; religion in, 17, 214–16, 222, 227, 253, 276; Shaysites in, 17, 213, 214–16, 218–20, 222, 227, 235, 253

    Springfield, Mass.: Am. Rev. in, 201; artisans in, 103; clergy in, 255; counterfeiting in, 300; courts in, 201–2; culture of, 255; Friends of Government in, 234; newspapers in, 103, 107; regional conventions in, 71–72, 73; Shaysites in, 157; Shays’s Rebellion in, 2, 21, 121, 123, 126, 129–32, 139, 145, 150, 201–2, 267, 298; Stephen Burroughs in, 300; wealth in, 190

    Springfield resolutions, 72

    Squatters, 14, 15, 19, 269, 288, 296

    Stamp Act, 51, 106

    Standing Order. See Congregationalism; Congregationalists; Religion

    Standisfield, Mass., 257

    Stanton, John, 224, 225

    Starkey, Marion, 239

    State of nature, 12, 127, 159, 171, 209, 222

    Steams, William Jennison, 89–90, 92, 94, 97

    Stebbins, Daniel, 130, 315

    Steele, Eliphalet, 267, 277

    Sterling, 60, 62

    Sterling, Mass., 86, 235

    Steuben, Friedrich Wilhelm von, 130

    Steward, Antipas, 276

    Stiles, Ezra, 250, 305

    Stillman, Samuel, 258

    Stockbridge, Mass., 121, 128, 232, 254

    Stoddard, Solomon, 195–96

    Storer, Ebenezer, 107

    Storrs, Richard, 276

    Streeter, Adams, 262

    Strickland, John, 275

    Strong, Caleb, 113, 131

    Sturbridge, Mass., 213, 214, 221, 222, 235

    Suffolk Co., Mass., 68, 254, 329 n. 43

    Sullivan, James, 155, 156–57

    Sullivan, John, 147–48, 149

    Sunderland, Mass., 234, 306

    Supreme Court of Judicature (Mass.): closings of, 122, 128; debt cases in, 10, 81, 87–90, 97, 219–20, 223; reform of, 97–98, 127

    Sutton, Mass., 87, 235, 259, 261, 262

    Swan, James, 327 n. 16

    Symmes, William, 265

    System of Doctrines, 254

    Szatmary, David: on Backus’s Address to the Inhabitants of New England . . . , 270; on Commonwealth of Mass., 12; on rural debt, 193; on Shaysites, 123, 129, 130, 131, 239; on Shays’s Rebellion, 186, 207, 248, 249

    Taft, Aaron, Jr., 88

    Taggart, Samuel, 276

    Taxes: and Am. Rev., 54, 70; artisans and, 145; in backcountry, 14, 74, 135, 136; Concord convention and, 76; consumers and, 103; and credit, 69, 72; and creditors, 55; and debt, 60, 78, 125, 217; and debtors, 55; and depreciation, 69; Essex Co., Mass., and, 329 n. 43; farmers and, 69, 102, 103, 117, 145; federal government and, 49, 56, 292; Federalists and, 117; Friends of Government and, 132; Hampshire Co., Mass., and, 329 n. 43; on land, 69; and loan interest, 9; in Mass., 1, 7, 8; Mass, government and, 22, 49, 51, 60, 77, 102, 137; merchants and, 58, 69, 76, 80; in N.H., 147; officials of, 165; and paper money, 9, 49, 52, 58, 65–66, 68, 72, 77–78; payment of, 109, 137, 138; in Pelham, Mass., 245; on polls, 69; protests against, 19; relief from, 22; and religion, 17, 20, 207, 217, 241–43, 245, 251, 257, 260, 263, 311; and Rev. War debt, 1, 50; Shaysites and, 123, 125, 127, 145, 158; and Shays’s Rebellion, 7, 8, 55; and society, 225; in Southborough, Mass., 86; and specie, 8, 51, 52; and state currencies, 72; Suffolk Co., Mass., and, 329 n. 43; on towns, 53, 134; and trade, 52; types of, 48, 50, 56, 103; veterans and, 103, 132

    Taylor, Robert J., 135, 198, 206, 325 n. 8

    Templeton, Mass., 235, 263, 276

    Testimonies of Mother Ann Lee, 246

    Thacher, Peter, 138

    Thacher, Thomas, 180

    Thatcher, Samuel, 154

    Thayer, Alexander, 276

    Thayer, David, 87–88

    Thayer, Ezra, 277

    Theater, 302, 315–19

    Theology, 17, 241, 245, 251. See also Political theology

    Thetford, Vermont, 129

    Thompson, James, 277

    Thompson, Samuel, 282–84, 288, 289, 292–93, 294–96

    Thompson, Stephen, 198

    Thoreau, Henry David, 319

    Tilly, Charles, 212

    Todd, Samuel, 277

    Tomlinson, Daniel, 275

    Topsham, Maine, 282, 284, 292, 294

    Tories. See Loyalists

    Towne, Col., 206

    Town meetings, 1, 71, 220, 285

    Towns: and Am. Rev., 130; assets of, 53; in backcountry, 16–17, 20, 70, 103–4, 187–88, 190; banks in, 65; in Berkshire Co., Mass., 213, 232; and Boston, 213; collectors in, 50; in Conn., 190–91; county conventions in, 104; culture of, 19, 299; and debt, 53, 72–73; and debtors, 85; in eastern Mass., 53, 136, 189; economy of, 190; farming in, 190; Federalism in, 117; Federalists in, 103; in Hampshire Co., Mass., 187, 213, 233–34; and ideology, 21; increase in, 130; interests of, 124; Jeffersonians in, 361 n. 25; and Maine, 19, 153, 154; merchants in, 103; and paper money, 73; political culture of, 13; political power of, 53; and prices, 68, 70, 72; Revolutionary veterans in, 130; scholarship on, 186; and Shays’s Rebellion, 12–13, 20, 187; and taxes, 53, 73; trade with, 74; wealth in, 53, 190; in Worcester Co., Mass., 213, 234–35

    Townsend, Mass., 275

    Townshend acts, 106

    Trade: and Am. Rev., 74; with backcountry, 22, 75, 106, 190; balance of, 52, 59, 60, 62–63, 82; with Boston, 74, 75, 96; British factors and, 116; with China, 112; Confederation and, 111; Congress and, 68, 110, 116; with Cuba, 49; elites and, 18; with Europe, 70, 75, 111, 112, 270; expansion of, 61; farmers and, 102; federal government and, 11, 115, 292; Federalists and, 111, 115; with France, 102, 111, 112; with Great Britain, 52, 60, 62, 106, 111, 283; with Holland, 111; ideology and, 62–63; with Maine, 285; with Mass., 49, 52, 61, 64; with Mediterranean, 112; and money, 60, 66–67, 82; with New England, 112–13; with Portugal, 112; protection of, 11, 52; regulation of, 22, 59, 102, 110, 112–16, 292; and revenue, 52; with R.I., 64; with South, 111, 112–13; with Spain, 111, 112; and taxes, 52; with towns, 74; with West Indies, 69, 75, 102, 106, 111–12, 270; with Worcester Co., Mass., 96

    Trade goods, 102–3, 106–9, 111, 134

    Traders, 70, 87, 105, 110, 285

    Tradesmen, 65, 74, 110–11

    Trask, Nicholas, 93

    Treaty of Paris (1763), 58

    Treaty of Paris (1783), 112, 143, 270

    True, Benjamin. See Burroughs, Stephen

    Tucker, Ebenezer, 276

    Tucker, Samuel, 227

    Turrell, Ebenezer, 307

    Tyler, Lemuel, 131

    Tyler, Royall, 19, 301–4, 315–19

    Tyranny, 5, 152, 172, 174, 179, 264

    Tyrants, 12, 166

    Tyringham, Mass., 232, 277

    Ulster, Ire., 187

    United States, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 20

    Universalism, 261–62

    Universalists: and Am. Rev., 210, 305; and Baptists, 210, 217; in Charlton, Mass., 224, 311; confidence men as, 314; establishment of, 256; as Friends of Government, 223; as Shaysites, 225; in Shaysite towns, 17

    University of Edinburgh, 243

    Upton, Mass., 235

    Uxbridge, Mass., 87, 225, 235, 260

    Van Schaack, Henry, 128, 142

    Vaughan, Charles, 154

    Vaughan, Elliot G., 154–55

    Vermont: clergy in, 269; Daniel Shays in, 2, 180; legislature of, 127; religion in, 257; Royall Tyler in, 302, 303, 319; Shaysites in, 129, 267, 301, 302

    Virginia, 6, 169, 180, 188

    Virtue: and Am. Rev., 133; and debt, 54, 60, 99; in eastern Mass., 133; Friends of Government and, 13; Mass, government and, 265; and money, 58–59, 68; republicanism, 309; Shaysites and, 170; and society, 124; and trade, 58–59

    Voluntarism, 17, 228

    Voluntary associations, 20, 223, 224

    Wadsworth, Peleg, 284

    Wait, Thomas, 284, 286–87, 289

    Waldo Patent (Maine), 269

    War bonds. See Notes, treasury

    Ward, Artemas, 124, 128

    Ward, Mass., 225, 235, 276

    Ware, Mass., 192, 227, 234, 263, 267, 277

    Warner, Gen., 206

    Warren, Daniel, 87

    Warren, James, 70, 76, 170, 309

    Warren, Joseph, 122–23, 127

    Warren, Mercy Otis, 181–82

    Warren, R.I., 257

    Warren Baptist Association, 209, 213, 257, 258–59, 260

    Warwick, Mass., 209, 234, 262

    Washington, George: Antifederalists on, 293; and Daniel Shays, 178; and Henry Lee, 177; and Lafayette, 1; and Madison, 171, 177; as potential dictator, 173; regiments of, 129; and slavery, 293

    Washington, Mass., 232

    Watkins, John, 308

    Watson, Oliver, 219

    Watson (family), 219

    Watts, Isaac, 253

    Wealth: and Am. Rev., 18, 134, 308; in backcountry, 134, 190, 192; in Boston, 124; and class, 22, 150, 151; in Conn., 190–91; of creditors, 81; of Daniel Shays, 129, 181; in eastern Mass., 123, 134; and farm size, 192; and federal government, 105; of Friends of Government, 214; in Great Britain, 60; in Hampshire Co., Mass., 189, 190, 191, 193; of lawyers, 113; in Maine, 153, 288–89; in Mass., 192; of merchants, 124; and religion, 216, 259, 263; of Shaysites, 169, 214, 239, 313; and Shays’s Rebellion, 105, 221; of Stephen Burroughs, 313; in Worcester Co., Mass., 187, 190, 216

    Webster, Noah, 134

    Wells, Rufus, 277

    Wells, Samuel, 64

    Wells, Maine, 288

    Wendell, Jacob, 64

    Wendell, Mass., 234

    Werden, Peter, 257

    Weson, John, Jr., 88–89

    Weson, John, Sr., 89

    West, Stephen, 254

    Westborough, Mass., 235

    West Church (Boston), 265

    Western Massachusetts in Revolution, 198

    Westfield, Mass., 234, 306

    Westhampton, Mass., 234

    West Indies, 69, 75, 102, 106, 111–12, 270

    Westminster, Mass., 86, 235

    Westminster Confession of Faith, 244

    West Springfield, Mass., 129, 234, 308

    West Stockbridge, Mass., 232, 277

    Wetmore, Ephraim, 96

    Whalley, Edward, 299

    Whately, Mass., 234, 277

    Wheeler, Adam, 126, 129, 168, 170–71, 227–28

    Wheelock, Eleazar, 260–61

    Whiggism, 165, 171

    Whigs, 170, 196, 199, 283, 284

    White, David, 247–48

    White and Clap (store), 107

    Whitefield, George, 261, 306–7

    White Indians, 14, 146–47, 153–60

    Whiteing, William, 130

    White v. Trask, 91

    Whitney, Aaron, 245–46, 252

    Whitney, Phinehas, 275

    Whittaker, James, 247, 262, 272

    Widgery, William, 281, 282, 294

    Wilbraham, Mass., 234

    Wilkinson, Jemima, 210

    Williams, Henry, 276

    Williams, Israel, 195

    Williams, Stephen, 276

    Williamsburg, Mass., 234

    Williamstown, Mass., 232

    Winchendon, Mass., 235

    Windsor, Mass., 232

    Winslow, Jacob, 64

    Winslow, Maine, 155

    Winthrop, James, 176

    Winthrop, John, 168

    Wiscasset, Maine, 283

    Wise, John, 62

    Wiser, Joseph, 86

    Wolves in Sheep’s Clothing, 308

    Women, 86, 108, 253

    Wood, Aaron, 247

    Wood, Gordon, 123, 124, 161

    Wood, Joseph, 109

    Woodbury, Jeremiah, 95

    Worcester Co., Mass.: Baptists in, 221, 222–26, 275, 276; class in, 213; clergy in, 209, 211, 213, 248, 250, 255, 275; Congregationalists in, 187, 217–24, 226–29, 253, 255, 275; county conventions in, 127, 311; courts in, 10, 81, 213, 285; creditors in, 10, 214, 216, 218–21; debt cases in, 10, 81–82, 85–99, 217; debtors in, 10, 214–15, 217, 218–21; ethnicity in, 187; Friends of Government in, 214–16; immigration to, 187; Jeffersonians in, 361 n. 25; justices in, 213; lawyers in, 220; and Maine, 286, 291; merchants in, 131; militia from, 213; newspaper in, 103; newspapers in, 107, 111; Presbyterians in, 187, 260; publishing in, 104; Quakers in, 260; religion in, 248–49, 275; scholarship on, 187; sects in, 211, 213–17, 220–26, 228–29, 263; Separate Baptists in, 213, 216, 257, 259; settlement of, 213; Shakers in, 275; Shaysites in, 122, 128, 130, 214–16, 275–76; Shays’s Rebellion in, 187, 199, 206, 236–38; and taxes, 329 n. 43; towns in, 213, 234–35; Universalists in, 223, 225, 261–62; wealth in, 187, 190, 216

    Worcester Magazine, 131, 164, 168

    Worthington, Mass., 234

    Writs, 156, 157, 224

    Wroth, L. Kinvin, 93

    Yale College, 247, 250, 255, 267, 298, 311

    Yankee, 298–320

    York Co., Maine, 291

    York, Maine, 265, 285, 288, 294

    Zobel, Hiller, 93